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36

JOURNAL^

i

OF THE

ialloD of Enqineering Soci

Boston. Cleveland. Minneapolis. Louisiana.

Montana. St. Paul. Buffalo. Cincinnati.

Detroit. Pacific Coast. St. Louis.

CONTENTS AND INDEX.

VOLUME XXIX.
July to December, 1902.

PUBLISHED BY

THE BOARD OF MANAGERS OF THE ASSOCIATION OF
ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

John C Trautwine, Jr., Secretary, 257 S. Fourth Street, Philadelphia.

79115

CONTENTS.

VOL. XXIX, July-December, 1902.

* i

For alphabetical index, see page v.
No. 1. JULY. *

PAGE

Storage Batteries in Mills and Factories. E. Vail Stebbins v 1

Proceedings.

- • «■

No. 2. AUGUST.

Street Railways. — A Series of Papers read before the Boston Society of
Civil Engineers.
I. The Street Railway System of Providence, R. I., and Vicinity.

George B. Francis 29

II. Street Railway Track Construction in City Streets. Arthur

L. Plimpton 43

III. The Relation of Street Railway Tracks to the Paving of City

Streets. Henry Manley 54

IV. Track and Overhead System for an Interurban Electric Rail-

way. Gilbert Hodges 57

V. Street Railways and State Highways. Harold Parker ....... 66

Discussion. Messrs. Francis, Manley, Hardy, FitzGerald, Hodg-
don, Plimpton, Allen, Smith, Macksey and Howland.

Rotative Pumping. John Richards 71

Discussion. Messrs. Grunsky, Jackson, Dickie, Wing, Wagoner,
Le Conte and Chodzko.

Pavements in General. Charles E. P. Babcock 91

Proceedings.

No. 3. SEPTEMBER.

The Hennebique System of Armored Concrete Construction. Leopold
Mensch 99

Inorganic and Organic Sources of Contamination of Water Supplies.

E. Stars 122

Proceedings.

No. 4. OCTOBER.

The New Works and Water Supply of the Butte Water Company.

Charles W . Paine 143

An Hawaiian Sugar Plantation. Charles W . Goodale 154

Proceedings.

(iii)

iv ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

No. 5. NOVEMBER.

PACE

The Abolition of Grade Crossings in Massachusetts. Edmund K.

Turner 159

Discussion. Messrs. Rollins, Ellis, Bissell, Swain, Williams,
Evans, Allen, Manley, Hardy, Lavis, Brooks, Story, Webber,

Turner and Kimball 180

Obituary —

James Spiers, Technical Society of the Pacific Coast 198

Oscar F. Whitford, Engineers' Society of Western New York 199

Proceedings.

No. 6. DECEMBER.

Tunnel Construction under Water. Howard A. Carson 205

Discussion. Messrs. O'Rourke, Ericson and Rice 217

The Efficiency of Some Rocky Mountain Coals. W. H. Williams 230

Obituary —

Col. G. H. Mendell, Technical Society of the Pacific Coast 234

Proceedings.

INDEX.

VOL. XXIX, July-December, 1902.

The six numbers were dated as follows :

No. 1, July. No. 3, September. No. 5, November.

No. 2, August. No. 4, October. No. 0, December.

Abbreviations. — P = Paper; D = Discussion; I = Illustrated.
Names of authors of papers, etc., are printed in italics.

TAGH

Abolition of Grade Crossings in Massachusetts. Edmund K. Turner.

P., D., Nov., 159

Armored Concrete Construction. Hennebique System of . Leopold

Mensch P., I., Sept., 99

[jabcock, Chas. E. P. Pavements in General P., Aug., 91

Batteries, Storage in Mills and Factories. E. Vail Stebbins.

P., I., July, I

Butte Water Co., New Works and Water Supply of the . Chas.

IV. Paine P., I., Oct., 143

\j arson, Howard A. Tunnel Construction under Water,

P., D.. I., Dec, 205

Coals, Efficiency of Some Rocky Mountain . W. H. Williams.

P., Dec, 230

Concrete Construction, Armored. Hennebique System of . Leo-
pold Mensch P., I., Sept., 99

Contamination of Water Supplies, Inorganic and Organic Sources

of . E. Stars P., I., Sept., 122

Crossings, Grade, Abolition of in Massachusetts. Edmund K.

Turner P., D., Nov., 1 59

iljlectric Railway, Track and Overhead System for an Interurban .

Gilbert Hodges P., Aug., 57

Efficiency of Some Rocky Mountain Coals. W. H. Williams, P., Dec, 230

1 actories, Mills and, Storage Batteries in . E. Vail Stebbins.

P., I, July, 1
Francis, Geo. B. Street Railway System of Providence, R. I., and

Vicinity Aug., 29

(v)

vi ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

PAGE

{joodale, Chas. IV. An Hawaiian Sugar Plantation P., Oct., 154

Grade Crossings^ Abolition of in Massachusetts. Edmund K.

Turner P., D., Nov., 159

Hawaiian Sugar Plantation. Chas. IV. Goodale P., Oct., 154

Hennebique System of Armored Concrete Construction. Leopold

Mensch P., I., Sept., 99

Highways, State, Street Railways and . Harold Parker.

P., D., I., Aug., 66

Hodges, Gilbert. Track and Overhead System for an Interurban Elec-
tric Railway P., Aug., 57

1 norganic and Organic Sources of Contamination of Water Supplies.

E. Stars P., I., Sept., 122

Pauley, Henry. The Relation of Street Railway Tracks to the Paving

of City Streets P., D., I., Aug., 54

Massachusetts, Abolition of Grade Crossings in . Edmund K.

Turner P., D., Nov., 159

Mendell, Col. G. H. . Obituary. Technical Society of the Pacific

Coast Dec, 234

Mensch, Leopold. Hennebique System of Armored Concrete Con-
struction P., I., Sept., 99

Mills and Factories, Storage Batteries in . E. Vail Stebbins.

P., I., July, 1

JN ew Works and Water Supply of the Butte Water Co. Charles W .

Paine P., I., Oct., 143

Ubituary. —

James Spiers, Technical Society of the Pacific Coast Nov., 198

Colonel G. H. Mendell, Technical Society of the Pacific Coast, Dec, 234

1 cine, Chas. IV. New Works and Water Supply of the Butte Water

Co P., I., Oct., 143

Parker, Harold. Street Railways and State Highways. .P., D., I., Aug., 66

Pavements in General. Chas. E. P. Babcock P., Aug., 91

Paving of City Streets, The Relation of Street Railway Tracks to

the . Henry Manley P., D., I., Aug., 54

Plantation, An Hawaiian Sugar . Chas. IV. Goodale P., Oct., 154

Plimpton, Arthur L. Street Railway Track Construction in City

Streets P., D., I., Aug., 43

Providence, R., I., and Vicinity, Street Railway System of . Geo.

B. Francis P., D., I., Aug., 29

Pumping, Rotative . John Richards P., D., I., Aug., 71

Kailway, Electric, Track and Overhead System for an Interurban .

Gilbert Hodges P., Aug., 57

Railways, Street . See Street Railways.

Richards, John. Rotative Pumping P., D., I., Aug., 71

Rocky Mountain Coals, Efficiency of Some . IV. H. Williams.

P., Dec, 230
Rotative Pumping. John Richards P., D., I., Aug., 71

INDEX. vii

. PAGE

0 piers, James , Obituary. Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

Nov., 198
Stars, E. Inorganic and Organic Sources of Contamination of Water

Supplies P., I., Sept., 122

State Highways, Street Railways and . Harold Parker.

P., D., I., Aug., 66
Stcbbins, E. Vail. Storage Batteries in Mills and Factories. .P., I., July, 1
Storage Batteries in Mill and Factories. E. Vail Stebbins. .P., I., July, 1
Street Railways. — A Series of Papers read before the Boston Society of
Civil Engineers.
I. The Street Railway System of Providence, R. I., and Vi-
cinity. Geo. B. Francis 29

II. Street Railway Track Construction in City Streets. Arthur
L. Plimpton 43

III. The Relation of Street Railway Tracks to the Paving of
City Streets. Henry Manley 54

IV. Track and Overhead System for an Interurban Electric Rail-
way. Gilbert Hodges 57

V. Street Railways and State Highways. Harold Parker.

P., D., I., Aug., 66

Subaqueous Tunnel Construction. Howard A. Carson. .P., D., I., Dec, 205

Sugar Plantation, An Hawaiian . Chas. W. Goodale P., Oct., 154

1 unnel Construction under Water. Howard A. Carson, P., D., I., Dec, 205
Turner, Edmund K. Abolition of Grade Crossings in Massachusetts.

P., D., Nov., 159
Track and Overhead System for an Interurban Electric Railway. Gil-
bert Hodges P., Aug., 57

\Y ater Supplies, Inorganic and Organic Sources of Contamination

of . E. Starz P., I., Sept., 122

Water Supply, Butte Water Co., New Works and . Charles

W. Paine P., I., Oct., 143

Whitford, Oscar F. . Obituary. Engineers' Society of Western

New York Nov., 190

Williams, W. H. . The Efficiency of Some Rocky Mountain Coals,

P., Dec, 230

Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.

Association

OF

Engineering Societies.

Organized 1881.

Vol. XXIX. JULY, 1902. No. i.

This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or for
the statements or opinions of members of the Societies.

:

STORAGE BATTERIES IN MIELS AND FACTORIES.

By E. Vail Stebbins.

[Read before the Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland,- January n, 1902,*"]

The function of a storage battery in a plant of ^ny kind is
that of a reservoir. It is an apparatus placed in circuit in an elec-
tric line, giving it relatively immense capacity to store up such
energy as may be generated beyond the demands of the load at.
any given time, and to return this energy to the line when the
demands exceed the average load.

This statement may seem superfluous, and yet there are
many who do not grasp its complete significance. It is a fact
that the laws of direct current electricity are practically identical
with those of hydraulics, and the action of electric currents and
the work they perform can be studied by exactly the same laws
as water currents or air currents. The work done upon any
D. C. electric circuit is the product of the volts and the amperes,
the head or pressure times the volume of current, just as the
available power of a waterfall is proportional to both the head and
to the rate of flow. Inertia and velocity effects are similarly
paralleled by the capacity and inductive effects in electricity, and,
in fact, throughout the line the comparison exists.

This fact is brought out in order that the action of a battery
on a line may be the more thoroughly understood and the result
of its action appreciated. But there is another analogy that will
assist in describing the aid rendered by a battery, and that is the
use of an air chamber or standpipe. These, it is true, are really
small reservoirs, but the property of varying the pressure is highly

♦Manuscript received April 26, 1902. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
1

2 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

developed, rather than the ability to take care of large amounts of
fluid, and the resulting regulation is quite different in consequence.
Now, the potential curve of a battery is quite similar to the com-

pression curve of an elastic fluid, and is, so to speak, in the same
direction as that representing increase of pressure due to increase of
head. In other words, as a battery fills up its terminal potential rises,
and lowers as it discharges. The fact that the charging pressure,
at a given state of charge, is somewhat higher than the corre-

STORAGE BATTERIES IN MILLS AND FACTORIES. 3

sponding discharge pressure, aids in this effect and makes the
equilibrium more stable. Thus these two important functions of
common hydraulic accessories may be duplicated in electric in-
stallations with the same beneficial results.

I suppose no competent engineer would attempt to operate
a gas plant without including gasometers or tanks of some kind
in his outfit any more than he would try to supply a city with

Fig. 2.

water from a pumping station unprovided with a proper dam, or
reservoir, or standpipe to regulate the demands upon his pumps.
A retort that was worked hard to supply the evening load of a gas
company, and run almost idle to keep pressure on the lines by
day without the assistance of tanks, would not only give variable
pressure and poor service, but would work most inefficiently.
Likewise, if a pumping station were operated in a similar manner,
water hammer, variable pressure, inability to meet the maximum

4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

demand and very poor economy would be only a few of the re-
sulting defects. Add to this a very variable load, jumping, per-
haps, from zero to maximum and back to zero in a few seconds,
and the work done by many electric stations will be appreciated.

This explains the poor economy of operation of many railways
and other electric plants, and shows at once the cause of poor
pressure, flickering lamps, sudden breakdowns, etc.

The development of the storage battery has alleviated these
difficulties to a very large extent, and has made it possible to

STORAGE BATTERIES IN MILLS AND FACTORIES. 5

operate power and lights from the same system without undue
flickering of the lamps; it has also made it possible to operate
highly fluctuating loads on a minimum amount of generating
apparatus ; and, as these two properties are the ones most needful
in mill and factory work, we are brought to the immediate subject
of this paper.

Fig. 4.

Before proceeding, however, it seems advisable to look into
the construction of a battery a little and see exactly what its
action is.

Essentially, a battery consists of positive and negative elec-
trodes in a containing vessel immersed in electrolyte of some kind.

In other words, we have the positive group, consisting of a
given number of positive plates, burned in multiple to a "T" strap

6 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

or bus bar, and the negative group, consisting of the same number
(plus one) of negative plates, burned together in like manner.

PC

Both of these groups are placed in either a glass jar, a wooden
lead-lined tank or a metallic alloy tank, which vessel is then filled
with sulphuric acid of the proper density. This is generally in
the neighborhood of 1150 s. g. when the battery is discharged,

STORAGE BATTERIES IN MILLS AND FACTORIES. 7

and 1200 s. g. after the battery is completely charged. The
various cells, as here described, are then connected in series to

fe

the proper number for giving the voltage required. They are set
upon racks or stringers, hereinafter described, with the necessary
insulators, etc.

8 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

As above stated, the number of cells determines the voltage,
and the size and number of plates per cell the capacity. At the

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commencement of discharge a single cell has a terminal potential
amounting to approximately 2.1 volts. As the cell discharges,
this gradually drops to two volts, which may be called the average
potential during discharge. As it empties, however, the potential

STORAGE BATTERIES IN MILLS AND FACTORIES. 9

again falls off considerably, until a final potential is obtained
considerably below this point, and varying with the rate at which
the current has been consumed. A cell which has been dis-
charged at the eight-hour rate, which is normal, will drop to about
1.8 volts. Should the current, however, be taken out at the five-
hour rate of discharge, the terminal potential will be found to be
1.75. A three-hour rate of discharge gives us 1.7, etc. Therefore,
in designing a battery for this character of straight discharging, the
number of cells will depend on the rate at which the current is used.
A battery where it is expected to take the discharge at the eight-
hour rate will consequently require a smaller number of cells than
one where the total output is to be used in three or four hours.
Likewise, in regulating work, where a battery charges and dis-
charges at high rates for a very few minutes, without by any
means exhausting the capacity of the battery, and where the size
of the cell is determined rather by what the battery will stand in
the way of sudden and excessive rates of flow, the voltage must be
so adjusted as to average the charge and discharge conditions,
and the number of cells is in this case so determined that the bus
pressure will give this average per cell when the battery is quies-
cent. The size of the cell is of course determined by the number
of plates and by the size of each plate. As a rule, the cells should
not be allowed to get too long, in view of the difficulty in caring
for them, and, when so many plates have been put into a cell as
to make it difficult to reach across it, it is better to increase the
size of the plate and use fewer plates per cell. Where the rate of
discharge is to be constant for considerable periods of time, it is
possible to use an oblong plate in order to economize space; but
for ordinary conditions of work the square plate will be found
to be much more satisfactory, and it is generally used, except in
large Edison stations and similar plants, where the conditions
render a type "H" plate particularly applicable.

All of the plates of either polarity are burned to bus bars
or T straps and are held apart by some sort of separator.

The positive plate consists, primarily, of a grid, in which
the active material is held. This grid is composed of an anti-
monious lead compound which is almost as stiff as brass, and not
only tends to resist bending or buckling, but is further only very
slightly susceptible to the action of sulphuric acid. This prevents
deterioration, due to distortion of the plate, and also such as
would follow were the grid eaten into by the electrolyte, under
charge. The grid, as cast, contains many round holes, set in
hexagonal pattern, and into these holes are forced spirals, formed

io ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

of corrugated lead ribbon. These corrugations are made so as
to give a great deal of surface to the button and to allow the
acid to pass completely through the plate, and the holes are so
formed that the swelling of the button, under the process of
oxidization, dovetails it firmly into the grid. It will be noticed
that, as these buttons go completely through the plate, the action
of the acid is equal on all parts of the active material, and, conse-
quently, a greater oxidization cannot take place on one side of

7 ft.31l. 9

the plate than on the other. Were the plates so made that the
active material on the two sides of the plate was separated, such
a condition of affairs would be found to cause uneven formation
of the lead oxide, the growth of which would very promptly give
the plate that curvature known as buckling, which results in
throwing off the active material, short-circuiting the cell and
the many other difficulties to which storage batteries in the earlier
stages were subject.

The negative plate consists of a like lead antimony grid,
except that the holes in this case are square and the grid is cast

STORAGE BATTERIES IN MILLS AND FACTORIES. n

aiound the buttons of active material which, in the primitive state,
consists of a mixture of lead and zinc chloride. In the finished
plate the zinc and chlorine have been chemically removed, leaving
the lead in a spongy mass, which is highly absorptive and presents
an enormous internal surface. It will be noticed that on wetting
one of these negative plates the buttons will absorb the moisture
like blotting paper and present a practically dry surface, whereas
the grid will remain wet. Quite different from "the positive plate,
the negative grid is cast around the buttons, and these are there-
fore made larger at the center than at the outer edges, the result
being that the negative button is dovetailed into the grid, but in
a reverse manner, so to speak, from the positive buttons.

It is necessary that all the plates should be kept well apart
from one another. The difference of potential between positive
and negative groups may be represented as the sum of the differ-
ence of potential between each plate and the electrolyte. If, there-
fore, a positive plate is allowed to touch a negative plate, or, if
short circuits are allowed to form between, the cell will promptly
discharge within itself, resulting in rapid deterioration and also,
of course, in loss of charge.

When the elements are installed in glass jars, hard-rubber
"ring'' separators are used. These consist of an oblong-shaped
piece of rubber, with a hole cut through the center of it, which
may be slipped over the positive plate. Two of these are placed
on the ends of the positive plates and serve to hold all the plates
thoroughly separated in the jar. Where the elements are installed
in tanks, glass tube separators are used, two tubes being placed
between each pair of adjacent plates. Fig. i shows an element
installed in a glass jar. From this it will be seen that the nega-
tive plates are all burned to a double tee strap at the left, while
the positive plates are similarly burned together at the right. The
ends of the hard-rubber separators over the positive plates are
also discernible. Fig. 2 shows a cell installed in a lead-lined tank.
Here the method of burning the plates to a lead bus bar, instead
of using tee straps, is shown. The arrangement of the buttons
on both the positive and negative plates is also clearly illustrated,
and the glass tube separators between the plates may be plainly
seen. In Fig. 1 it may be noticed that the plates rest directly
upon the edge of the glass jar. In Fig. 2, however, where a lead-
lined tank has been used, sheets of glass are inserted to support
the plates, as they would otherwise all be short-circuited against
the lead lining of the containing vessel. In these wooden tanks
no metal of any kind, save the lead lining, is used; iron being very

12 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

detrimental to a storage battery, as is also copper, no nails of any
kind are used, and the sides and bottom of the tank are all grooved
and dovetailed into place. The lead lining is very carefully burned
up so as to avoid any possible leaks, and the more modern tanks are
so designed that any spilled acid may not remain in contact with the
wood and cause deterioration.

We will now take up the charge and discharge curves of a
battery. It will be noticed that when a battery is completely
charged it will commence to discharge at a pretty high voltage.

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and the curve runs along at an almost constant voltage, dropping
slightly till the cell is pretty well emptied, when the pressure again
falls off rapidly. Now, if these charges were not compensated
for, it would be impossible to maintain a constant potential across
the bus bars. There are several ways of doing this. First, by the
use of end cells; second, by means of counter cells; third, by
means of various specially wound boosters, and, finally, by the
separation of circuits, the introduction of resistances and various
combinations of these schemes.

The term "end cells" is self-explanatory. It means that a
certain number of cells on the end of a battery have individual

STORAGE BATTERIES IN MILLS AND FACTORIES. 13

connections to the bus bar through an end-cell switch, by which
the battery current may be allowed to pass through any desired
number of cells, thereby gradually reducing or increasing the
number of cells in series. As each cell represents a given voltage
at any state of discharge, the voltage maintained across the bus
by the battery may be maintained constant, provided the end cells
are thrown in or out, so as to counterbalance the change in volt-
age of the cells due to the amount of current which has been taken
from them. Thus, for example, a battery containing say sixty-
four cells, of which thirteen are end cells, would commence dis-
charging with the thirteen end cells all thrown out, or only fifty-
one cells operating. As the voltage dropped off, one cell would
be thrown in, then another, and a third and so on until at the end
of discharge as many cells would be thrown in as was found neces-
sary to maintain the voltage desired at the bus.

Where batteries are of large size, and a considerable number
of end cells are used, these string out to quite a distance, and con-
siderable copper is used in making a connection from each end cell
to the board of sufficient capacity to carry the entire output of
the battery. Under these circumstances, it is of course desirable
to place the end cells as close to the board as is practicable. Fig.
3 shows an arrangement of this sort. Here the end cells are
placed on the ends of three rows of the battery, the connections
from each one being brought to the board on which is located
the end-cell switch. It will readily be seen from this arrangement
how much copper has been saved over what would have been the
case had the cells all been arranged in line on the last row of the
battery. Fig. 4 shows a switchboard on which are mounted two
round-pattern end-cell switches. It will be seen that by turning
the handles of these switches the contact will be revolved around
the entire set of points to which the end cells are connected. It
is necessary, in all end-cell switches, to have a short-circuiting
resistance attached to the main contact, for in passing from one
cell to another it is necessary either to disconnect the battery or
else to short-circuit a cell. Disconnecting the battery would cause
bad flickering of the lights, whereas direct short-circuiting of the
cell would tend to rapidly deteriorate it. The short-circuiting
resistance, generally made of German silver, allows the cell to be
short-circuited through it, and the consequent flow is very small,
all damage to the cell being thereby prevented. Fig. 5 shows
four horizontal-type motor-driven end-cell switches, used on larger
sizes of battery. In the foreground is also shown a motor-driven
double shunt booster. The entire outfit in this illustration is for

14

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

charging and discharging a storage battery installed upon a three-
wire system, two of the end-cell switches being used to charge the
two sides of the battery through the double booster, while the
other two end-cell switches are used for discharging.

In smaller batteries counter cells may be used. These consist
of grids, in which no active material has been placed, but are
otherwise exactly like the standard cells. The very slight coating

Fig. io.

of oxide on the grid is sufficient to give a counter electro-motive
force, but the cell cannot be discharged, as it has practically no
capacity whatever. From 2.3 to 2.5 volts is the difference of
potential obtained from a counter cell. Of course, in this case the
entire battery is connected in, all of the counter cells being used
to oppose it at the commencement of discharge, and (quite the
contrary in the method of procedure in the case of the end cells)
these counter cells are thrown out of circuit as the voltage of the
battery goes down under discharge.

STORAGE BATTERIES IN MILLS AND FACTORIES. 15

Fig". 6 illustrates a motor-driven booster. The function of
this machine is to regulate the charge or the discharge of a bat-
tery, or in some cases both. Boosters are also designed to give
a constant current in special classes of work taken up later.

Taking up these various methods of regulating the battery,
then, in their order, we find that the end cell and counter cell or
rheostat connections are generally used where a battery is to be
used on peak work or to carry night load when the plant is shut
down. In many factories the capacity of the plant is practically
all used to operate machinery; consequently, when the lights are
thrown on, the plant is overloaded and breakdowns are frequent.
Now, a battery can be slowly charged all day whenever there is a
little surplus power, and in the evening it will assist the generator
in carrying the additional load. Such additions are frequently
made where millowners wish to increase the capacity, adding
more motors or more lights to an installation which already taxes
the plant to its full capacity during peak loads. Another boiler
may seem desirable, or another engine or generator, and yet the
engineers do not care to advise the purchase, as perhaps the
present plant is only half loaded during the major part of the day.
Xew generating machinery would, when in use, not operate fully
loaded, and would, therefore, be uneconomical, while during the
main portion of the day the present machinery is not giving the
best results for like reasons. Let us examine the curve showing
the relation of the coal consumption per kilowatt hour to the
load factor of the engine. From this it will readily be seen how
quickly the coal consumption per unit of work increases as the
load on the engine is allowed to drop further and further below
its rating. Overloading an engine too much likewise increases
the coal per kilowatt hour, but this is not so important, because
it is less apt to be done. Now, by charging when the load is light
and discharging when heavy, the engine operating may be kept
approximately fully loaded all the time. The curves here shown
in Figs. 7, 8 and 9 are from various classes of work, and show
how, under varying external loads, giving peaks of considerable
duration, the machines may, nevertheless, be kept fairly constant
at full load.

The end-cell switches are operated manually or by a motor,
throwing cells in or out in such numbers as to make the battery
carry any quantity of the load which the engineer may desire.

Xow, in very small installations, this same regulation may
be obtained through the use of a rheostat, thereby saving the
expense of the end-cell connections, although this method is less
economical, owing to the C2R losses in the resistance.

i6

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

When exceedingly close regulation is required, the counter
cells are used. They respond very readily to changes of current,
maintaining very constant voltage at the lamps, and giving the
entire system an elasticity not obtainable in any other way.
Owing to the increased total number of cells, however, they are
rarely installed in very large battery plants. These cells have a
relatively large electro-motive force, with very small capacity,
while end cells have the same electro-motive force and capacity
as the rest of the cells.

< 50

We now come to a class of work where highly fluctuating
loads are to be dealt with. Many factories are equipped with
cranes of high power, elevators, locomotives, etc., which do not
average much power, but, on starting with a full load, take enor-
mous inrushes of current. These will make the engines pound
and grind, with an accompaniment of flickering lights, slowing of
motors and many other unsatisfactory disturbances of the service.
In cases of this sort a scheme is generally adopted of placing all
the lights and other constant loads across the generator bus and
the fluctuating motors, etc., on a separate bus. The battery is
across the "variable load bus, with a constant current booster
supplying the current from the generator bus. In this manner

STORAGE BATTERIES IN MILLS AND FACTORIES.

17

the average current of the variable load is supplied as a constant
load, the battery taking the average current to charge, in the
intervals when there is little or no call for current, and discharg-
ing heavilv when the momentary peaks come on, thus adding

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to the average current supplied by the constant current booster
enough to meet the demands. This requires a relatively small
regulating battery and greatly reduces the amount of generating
machinery needed. It maintains a constant load on the gener-
ators, insuring a steady light and a steady high-load factor, with ex-
cellent economy of operation in consequence. At night, or when-

18 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

ever the fluctuating load ceases, the two sets of busses may be
tied together, cutting out the constant current booster, and the
battery may be used as previously described. Fig. 10 shows the
results of such an installation in regulating elevator fluctuations.
When the average current varies greatly, a better scheme has
been devised, which consists in putting a differential or com-
pound booster in series with the battery and causing it to charge
or discharge the battery, according to the requirement? of the

Fig. 13.

external load. By this means the output of the machinery can be
regulated to within ten per cent, of any given amount. This
scheme is used largely on railway work, and is perhaps more
suited to it than to factory practice, although it has been used with
great success in a number of plants when the constant current
scheme could not be readily adapted. Figs. 11 and 12 show re-
sults so obtained. Fig. 13 shows a switchboard used with
boosters of this class, and I would call particular attention to
the reversing rheostat specially devised to obviate the necessity
of opening the field circuit.

STORAGE BATTERIES IN MILLS AND FACTORIES.

ig

We will now look at the construction of batteries as variously
installed. Fig-. 14 shows the battery in the Arnold Print Works
installed in edass. ,As will be here seen, the cells are mounted on

Fig. 14.

sand trays, supported by insulators, the whole being- put upon
wooden racks which are thoroughly coated with acid-proof paint.
This is necessary in order that any acid which slops over may not
attack the wood. The floor of the room is made of cement,

20

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

vitrified brick, tile or some other acid-proof material. In the
farther end of the room may be seen a number of the end-cell

connections going from the terminal cells of the battery over to
the switchboard. Fig. 15 shows the switchboard and booster
operated with this battery.

STORAGE BATTERIES IN MILLS AND FACTORIES. 21

Fig. 16 is the battery of Messrs. R. & H. Simon, at Union
Hill, N. J. This battery is considerably larger than that of the

Fig. 16.

Arnold Print Works, and is installed in lead-lined tanks. These,
it will be seen, do not need the sand trays, and are mounted
directly on the racks with large glass insulators.

12

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Fig. 17.

Fig. 17 shows the battery installed in the mill of Jones Bros.,
and is like the first one, a smaller battery installed in glass. The
terminal connections between the rows are very clearly shown here.

STORAGE BATTERIES IN MILLS AND FACTORIES. 23

From these illustrations a very fair idea of the method of
installing batteries can be obtained.

It is sometimes desirable to install a battery before the mill
is completed and at a time when the average or varying load

M

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

After Installation of Battery.

Before Installation of Battery.
Fig. 19.

STORAGE BATTERIES IN MILLS AND FACTORIES.

25

is considerably less than it may be after some contemplated exten-
sions are put in. The equipment readily lends itself to this con-
dition. The tanks may be installed large enough for future use
and only sufficient plates burned in to meet the original demand.
As the load increases, more plates can be added until the tanks are
full. No other change is required. This spreads the initial cost
over a considerable period of time and, consequently, lightens the
interest charges. Fig. 18 shows this condition of battery.

It is, of course, well, in installing a battery in this manner,
to put in wiring of sufficient size to carry the current which the
battery will discharge at its fullest maximum capacity. This also
applies to the instruments on the switchboard and to the booster
if such a piece of apparatus is used. It is sometimes possible to

Fig. 20. Voltage Curves in a Station Before and After Installing
Electric Batteries.

so design this latter machine that it will be capable of carrying
considerable overloads for short periods of time; and, where the
installation is to be used on fluctuating work, a booster so de-
signed and installed, where the tanks are only partially filled in
the first place, will often suffice for the enlarged battery; pro-
vided, however, that the heavy discharges made possible by the
extra plates do not last longer than the overload rating of the
machine. In street railway work and central station work this
practice of installing larger tanks than is necessary for the first
needs of the battery has become almost universal, and it is rather
the exception to see a battery installed at its full capacity when it
is contracted for.

There is another use in factory work to which storage bat-
teries are very extensively put ; that is, in the manufacture of incan-
3

26 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

descent lamps. Throughout Ohio generally, and also in Cleve-
land, we have factories turning out high-grade incandescent lamps
which depend absolutely on storage batteries for all power used in
adjusting, rating and testing their lamps. It is a well-known
fact that an incandescent lamp, burning up to candle power on a
no-volt circuit, will vary almost one candle power per volt of
variation in the current supply. It is, therefore, evident how neces-
sary it is that the pressure should be absolutely constant. No
generator can supply a current of this steadiness, and for this
reason the use of storage batteries has become practically uni-
versal in this line of work. The filaments are also adjusted by
passing electric current through them, and it is necessary that the
current should be cut off immediately upon the point being
reached where the filament has the correct resistance. Ohm's law
tells us that current, resistance and voltage are all interdependent
on any system, and, in order that this may work properly and
automatically, it is again necessary that no variation in current
should be felt at the lamp. Figs. 19 and 20 show the effect of a
battery in regulating the voltage on a system which had previously
been run without it.

There are many other uses to which storage batteries are put
in mills and factories, in the way of operating telephone ex-
changes, call bells, fire alarms, special electrical machinery, etc.,
but these are more individual than general in their nature and
cannot very well be taken up in a paper of this scope. The main
use to which batteries are put is, of course, in assisting the gener-
ating plant along one of the lines above outlined, and it is here
that we must seek for the benefits which it is capable of bestowing.

Lack of space requires that mill and factory batteries should
generally be installed in tiers, whereas central station and railway
batteries may almost invariably be placed in a single layer, owing
to the fact that the larger size of the battery generally necessitates
a special building.

In closing, it seems desirable to mention one other point on
which a battery may be of great assistance to a factory, and that is
when used in conjunction with a gas engine. Considerable com-
plaint has been made by users of this kind of prime mover that
the results obtained were not satisfactory, owing to the intermit-
tent effect of the explosions, which was very apt to cause flicker-
ing of the lights, and also owing to occasional breakdowns, which,
though perhaps easily remedied, were still of a sufficiently serious
nature to cause delay in work. The battery not only vastly im-
proves the electrical service which a gas engine is able to give*

STORAGE BATTERIES IN MILLS AND FACTORIES. 27

but also regulates the general distribution from the plant and
maintains a twenty-four-hour service, even though the engine is
run but a comparatively short number of hours each day.

Such, then, are the main features of a battery installation as
used in mills and factories. It is undoubtedly a fact that they
require considerable care in the way of seeing that short circuits
do not occur, that they are kept properly cleaned, properly charged
and properly watered ; but despite this fact, the advantages which
they render, when installed in connection with electric plants, are so
great that they are daily coming into greater use in this line of
work. Whereas, heretofore, the storage battery business has Seen
confined very largely to electric railway work and large central
stations, we find to-day that numerous isolated plants are going in
all over the country, in the borough of Manhattan, in New York
city, there being some forty-one batteries of this type, representing
thousands of kilowatt hours capacity. It is safe to assume that in
time the storage battery will be considered as essential a part of any
electrical equipment as is any other reservoir in plants where the
load is intermittent.

+ nrr~iT~D~z»j.

INUEXED.

Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.

Ass

OCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Organized 1881.

:

Vol. XXIX. AUGUST, 1902. No. 2.

. \ :

This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or fo:
the statements or opinions of members of the Societies.

r-

STREET RAILWAYS.

A Series of Papers Read Before the Boston Society of Civil Engineers,

May 14, 1902.*

I. — Tlie Street Railway System of Providence, Rhode
Island, and Vicinity.

By George B. Francis, Member Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

CHARACTERISTICS."

The street railway system of Providence and vicinity was first
operated in 1865.

There are 270 miles of track, 743 cars, 2100 employes, and in
190 1 there were about 54,000,000 passengers carried.

On January 1, 1900, there were 175 miles of track. Since then
there has been built 64 miles of track and purchased 31 miles of
track, making a total now of 270 miles of track.

About eighteen miles of this trackage is on private right of
way and was formerly owned and operated by steam railroad
companies.

This trackage is located in eighteen different cities and towns
in Rhode Island and Massachusetts.

There are four operating companies (so far as accounts are
concerned), all operated by the same officers and all controlled by
the United Traction and Electric Company of New Jersey. The
names of the four operating companies are as follows :

The Union Railroad Company.

The Pawtucket Street Railway Company.

The Rhode Island Suburban Railway Company.

The Interstate Consolidated Street Railway Company.

*Manuscri'pt received July 21. igo2. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
4

30 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The Union Railroad Company, as its name indicates, was
originally made up of several small horse railroad companies in
the city of Providence and the city of Pawtucket. Later it ab-
sorbed, by lease, the Providence Cable Tramway Company.

The Rhode Island Suburban Railway Company acquired the
property of the Pawtuxet Valley Electric Railroad Company, the
Cumberland Street Railroad Company, the Barring-ton, Warren
and Bristol Company and the Warwick and Oakland Beach branch
of the N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R. Co.

The Interstate Consolidated Street Railway Company's lines
arc made up of still earlier companies operating between Pawtucket,
R. I., and Attleboro, Mass., and North Attleboro, and the Attleboro
Branch Railroad, a part of the N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R.

As these various companies lap over in the different cities and
towns, it is necessary, in reporting the mileage, for various pur-
poses, to divide the report into twenty-nine main divisions, repre-
senting- each company in each city or town. These reports em-
brace two other grand divisions, one of renewals and the other of
additions ; and each of these is again sub-divided into ( i ) , main
tracks; (2), turnouts and crossovers, and (3), car-house tracks.

The Railroad Commissioner also requires the mileage of road-
bed independently of track mileage.

The reporting of this mileage for assessors, franchise taxes,
bond purposes and car mileage annually, quarterly and monthly is
one of the most trying and puzzling duties the engineer has to
perform.

There are not less than twenty-seven kinds of rail in the main
tracks, to say nothing of the variety of guard rails, etc., in the
special work.

The improvements, existing and contemplated, in track and
underway, are,

First. Placing of concrete beams under the rail and the
avoiding of ties altogether in some instances.

Second. The placing of at least a foot of gravel ballast under
the ties in all track, instead of using whatever material happens to
be convenient.

Third. The decrease in spacing of ties to possibly 22 inches,
C to C.

Fourth. The increase in width and length of ties to not less
than 7-inch widths and 8-foot lengths.

Fifth. The placing of guard rails on all curves of less than
600 feet radius.

Sixth. The placing of switch tongue on the opposite side

STREET RAILWAY SYSTEM OF PROVIDENCE, R. I. 31

from usual practice, in a good many cases, so that main track will
be free from the tongue.

Seventh. The adoption of a lock for switch points as soon
as a suitable method can be found for the various conditions.

AfTTLEBORO

Diagrams Showing Lines Operated by the United Traction and
Electric Co.

Eighth. To locate interurban lines, as far as possible, on
private right of way, so that control may be had over grades,

32 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

alignments, drainage and all features of the track, as well as speed
of the cars.

Ninth. To avoid sharp curvature and reverses in curvature
as far as possible.*

Tenth. To improve the usual country bridges, so that there
shall be no chances taken as to the sufficiency of their strength,
even though it requires expenditure on the part of the railroad to
bring about this condition.

Eleventh. To improve the private bridge floors so that they
shall be brought up to the standard reached by steam railroads,
namely: close tie spacing, guard rails, guard timbers, and all car-
ried well back onto the ground.

Twelfth. To eliminate the mate, so called, wherever pos-
sible, and use double-point switches connected together, thrown
by a stand and capable of being locked.

The type of rail to be used is still dependent on the location
of the track, whether in the city or in the country.

Some of the peculiarities of street railroading which impress
the steam railroad engineer are as follows :

First. The greater cost of street track per mile, under city
conditions.

Second. The fact that, under the charter of the Rhode Island
Suburban Railway, the tracks are laid under the direction of about
thirty-five different highway surveyors, who are more or less
changed every year, thus having about thirty-five unpaid, inex-
perienced chief engineers who must not under any circumstances
be roiled with any contention. In some instances the ideas of
these town officers are at total variance, so that what is insisted
on in one town is positively prohibited in another.

The drainage of the track is usually sacrificed to the drainage
of the roadway.

In some instances no definite location could be obtained until
the tracks were laid, and then quite likely the location was changed
in part after the surveyor could see how it looked. The same with
grades. In one town grades were prescribed by the town officer,
and, after the tracks were laid, the raising and lowering of track
was insisted on.

*It is a broad-mincled municipal engineer who does not strive to make the
street railway track secondary to all other features of street traffic, and
again and again municipal engineers utterly ignore the fact that the railway
is primarily for the convenience of the public, as against the profit of a
monopoly. Some public officials, as well as many individuals, are utterly
unable to look beyond the ownership of the railroad, to the convenience of
the people who ride in the cars, and this is true even of some. who ride.

STREET RAILWAY SYSTEM OF PROVIDENCE, R. I.

33

In a great many cases no street lines existed, either by record
or by fences. When it came to the location of turnouts it was
nearly impossible to get the town officer to realize the relations of

11 / / II 7

speed, time and distance. In some cases the locations which would
be approved for turnouts were stated, utterly regardless of the
needs, and it was with great difficulty that the turnouts were at
last placed somewhere within reason.

34

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

On one of the lines three turnouts were placed opposite con-
venient cemeteries as the places where the least objection would be
made to their location, but opposition was made by the authorities
that such locations would disturb funerals.

Advantage was always taken by the town officers of the op-
portunity to obtain benefits in the way of regrading and widening
roads, improving drainage, bridges and culverts. In one instance
the town engineer resurrected a map of a road layout made in
1803, to oblige the street railway to fill in a bog which the town
had dodged for ninetv-seven years.

Cranston Street Repair Shops. Lavatory.

Third. Elevation of outer rail. Street conditions sometimes
require a depression instead of an elevation. There are two
peculiarities about derailments. One is that nearly all occur after
dark ; another that they occur on curves, and mostly on curves of
fairly good radii, say 200, 300 or 400 feet, which are unguarded,
and where the motorman thinks he can run at a good speed com-
pared with sharp curves.

Fourth. Loose switch points. Nothing of this kind is found
in steam railroading, and it will be a relief to street railroad men

STREET RAILWAY SYSTEM OF PROVIDENCE, R. I. 35

when a reasonable method is found to fasten the points while they
arc run over.

Fifth. That such a reasonable and simple method will be
found I am fully convinced.

We have now under construction such an attachment to the
points, and, after giving it a trial, it will be described if found
feasible.

Sixth. The grade crossing of steam railroads by street rail-
roads. There exist about twenty such crossing^ in the vicinity of

Cranston Street Repair Shops. Winding Room

Providence, and it is hard work to put up arguments in favor of any
additional ones.

Seventh. The small flanges on street-car wheels and the
trouble had with chipped flanges due to running over special work.

It has become the custom in street railroad construction to
build the special work in such a way that when the wheels pass
through the mates and the frogs they shall bear on the flanges,
thus avoiding the pounding over the break in the head of the rail,
the consequent noise and the severe wear on the switches and
frogs. With light horse cars running in the cities only, and at
low speed, this practice may have been defensible ; with heavy

36

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

cars, which must first go through the city streets at moderate speeds
and later run upon the suburban and interurban tracks at high
speeds, even reaching forty or more miles per hour, it seems to me
that it is wholly indefensible.

The flange of the wheel can never be made suitable to sustain
the heavy car (unless made of steel, the cost of which is almost
prohibitive, it being as 5 to I ) , as its necessary form, namely : a
fairly sharp edge of a circle, precludes it. At present the chipping
of these flanges is a very serious matter, and it is going on so ex-
tensivelv that no railroad manager can hope to keep up the removal

Cranston Street Repair Shops. Iron-working Shop.

of wheels as fast as required by this cause. The result is that many
cars are being run at high speeds, with flanges very badly chipped
for a larger part of the circumference of the wheels, and the value
of the remaining part of the flange is not in proportion to its depth,
as it is so jagged and scalloped by the breaks that on the least
provocation the wheel climbs the head of the rail.

The principal reason for building the special work in this form
has been to prolong the life of the switch work. This is now being
done at the expense of the life of the wheels and perhaps the lives
of the passengers. It is only a question of time when the life of the

STREET RAILWAY SYSTEM OF PROVIDENCE, R. I. 37

special work will be of secondary importance, and some other way
will have to be found to accomplish the result desired. The only
way which now comes to mind is the widening of the treads of the
wheels from the present widths of 2\ or 2\ inches to 3 inches or
more, so that, by reason of this additional width, the wheel may
still bear on one portion of the frogs or mates until it laps over the
space and begins to bear on the other portion. This is the reason
why steam railroad wheels do not drop into the frog openings, and
it can be applied to street railroads. This remedy again involves

Cranston Street Repair Shops. Paint Shop.

more care in paving outside of the rails, so that the wheel will not
have to run upon paving obstruction. I know that the abandon-
ment of the custom of running on the flanges will meet with oppo-
sition at once by railroad managers and special work manufactur-
ers, but the perpetuaton of the practice has no foundation in
common sense under the new conditions. That is to say, the chilled
iron flange is not and cannot be made fit to do the work of the
tread of the wheel.

In the Providence system the tracks pass over about one hun-
dred and thirty-five bridges, forty of which belong to the street

38

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

railroad, the remaining ninety-five being public bridges, eighteen of
which the street railway has been obliged to strengthen.

A bridge record book is kept, so that periodical inspections are
recorded, as well as notes of all alterations, repairs and renewals.

The following is from an ordinance of the City Council of
Providence regarding the size and weight of cars :

Maximum length, 42 feet.

Maximum width, 9 feet.

Maximum weight, empty, 42,000 pounds.

Maximum weight, loaded, 60,000 pounds.

Cranston Street Repair Shops. View of South and East Sides.

Some of the cars run quite up to these limits, and, in the case
of some of the older double-track locations, it has been found quite
necessary to widen out the distance from center to center of tracks,
the standards being 11 feet on private right of way, 10 feet on
streets where width of streets will permit, and 9^ feet for a min-
imum.

On the tracks formerly operated by the steam railroad, the
freight service is moved the same as formerly — by means of motor
cars. The passenger stations, some with and some without agents,
are retained. On these tracks the steam railroad wheels and the

STREET RAILWAY SYSTEM OF PROVIDENCE, R. I.

39

street railroad wheels go through the same frogs and switches.
Special spring frogs are used, so that the narrow-tread wheels will
not drop into the throats of the frogs. A speed of 40 miles an
hour is obtained by the passenger cars on these tracks.

There are no transfers as yet, but on July 10 the law recently
passed, requiring transfer tickets at all junction points, goes into
effect. There are 143 of these junction points.

A freight and express service has been in existence for more
than a year and is proving very useful. There are four track con-

Ckaxstox Street Repair Shops. Paint-mixing Room.

nections with the steam railroad and seven with other street rail-
roads.

There are about seventy-five buildings in this system, as follows :

Thirty passenger and freight buildings.

Sixteen car houses.

Five power houses.

Two shop buildings and twenty-two other and smaller build-
ings.

Seven of the largest car houses have just been equipped, at
considerable cost, with the Grinnell Sprinkler System of piping to
reduce the fire risk and insurance premiums.

40 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The three buildings, the first two of which have been com-
pleted, about which I wish to speak more particularly, and which
have been designed by the Engineering Department, are the new
Elmwood Car House, the Cranston Street Repair Shops and the
Manchester Street Power Station, the latter now under construc-
tion.

The new Elmwood Car House is a brick building, 200 feet
wide and 360 feet long, containing fourteen tracks and capable of
holding about 150 cars. It is divided into four parts by longitudinal
fire walls and is lighted through the roof by saw-tooth skylights,
the latter upon the recommendation of fire insurance experts. I
disapprove this kind of skylight on account of its expense.

The pit rooms have granolithic floors, both between the tracks
and in the pits. The roof is equipped with sprinklers and the pit
rooms and other service rooms are heated with steam heat.

On this lot there is also room to double the capacity of the
building. The illustrations exhibit the general characteristics. The
cost of this building was 7.4 cents per cubic foot, with a total ex-
penditure of about $175,000.

The Cranston Street Repair Shops cover about three acres of
ground, and the road department yard, in connection with it, sev-
eral more acres.

These shops are of brick and steel construction, with grano-
lithic floors. They have a hot-air heating system and are equipped
with sprinklers, and all the machinery is operated by electricity
supplied from the main power station. The cost of this building
and equipment is nearly $400,000. The cost of the building, with
heat and light, has been 9.2 cents per cubic foot.

The power station now under construction covers an area of
about 200 by 150 feet and is built on about 5000 piles, from 50 to
60 feet long, which passed through about 40 feet of mud and filling
to a reasonably good bottom.

These piles are capped with 4 feet of Portland cement con-
crete and surrounded by a sheet pile cofferdam made of 6-inch
splined hard pine in 40-foot lengths.

The superstructure is of brick and steel and is about 75 feet
high. The boiler room supports coal pockets of 2500 tons capacity.
The eight Babcock & Wilson 500 horse power water tube boilers
will be equipped with Roney mechanical stokers and mechanical
draught coal-conveying machinery will also be installed.

The engine room will contain two 1500 K. W. alternating cur-
rent generators, one 1500 K. W. and one 1250 K. W. direct current
generators.

STREET RAILWAY SYSTEM OF PROVIDENCE, R. I. 41

The portion of the building now under construction is only one-
half of that contemplated, and it is the intention, when the whole
is completed, to abandon some of the present temporary stations
and eventually the present main station.

This design was described in the Street Railway Journal for
March, 1902, and the Elmwood Car House in the issue of April,
1902.

The contract cost of this building, including foundations, is
10.6 cents per cubic foot, with a total cost of about $900,000 for the
entire plant.

Other items of interest concerning this railway system are the
pensions for superannuated employes and the Employes' Mutual
Aid Association.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. Henry Manley. — In view of the very much larger loads
that are carried on railroads now than formerly, and also of the
larger weight of the loco-motives, is there any tendency to increase
the standard gauge in this country?

Mr. Francis. — I think not.

Mr. G. R. Hardy.- — Is there any reason, looking at the thing
practically, why 4 feet &J inches is more desirable than any other ;
lhat is, a gauge about 4 feet that gives the convenience of a middle
aisle and a two-seated seat on each side ?

Mr. Francis. — The main thing seems to be that the gauge be
uniform rather than 4 feet 8-| inches or 4 feet 9 inches.

Mr. Hardy. — The question I wish to ask is whether the seat-
ing capacity would be better if a change were made. You are ac-
quainted with street railway work and you find your cars are better
adapted to service if they have an opportunity to seat two persons
on each side of the aisle. Will any other gauge do that as well ?

Mr. Francis. — On the excursion to-day you rode on a car 9
feet wide over all, gauge 4 feet 8-J inches, with seats on each side,
each seat accommodating two persons. The seat was somewhat
cramped and perhaps you noticed it. The steam railroad cars are
practically all 10 feet wide, some very little less and a few a very
little more. The seats accommodating two persons are quite com-
fortable. Wider cars would give a little more room, but it is certain
you could not seat three on each side. In my opinion a gauge of
4 feet 8-| inches, with 10-foot cars, furnishes good accommodation
for a double seat on each side of the aisle.

Mr. Desmond Fitzgerald. — Is there any tendency in Rhode
Island, as there has been in Massachusetts, to ask street railwav

42 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

companies to pay for widening" streets where that has been neces-
sary?

Mr. Francis. — It is quite universally attempted.

Mr. Fitzgerald. — It has not been carried out ?

Mr. Francis. — In some instances, it has.

Mr. Fitzgerald. — Is there any effort in Rhode Island to tax
street railways?

Mr. Francis. — The street railway in the city of Providence
pays the regular assessed tax. It also takes care of the streets be-
tween tracks and 18 inches outside; and it not only takes care of
them, but furnishes the paving. It cannot go into a street and
take up the paving and replace it. When it goes into a street the
city carts away the paving and the company has to provide new.
It also pays to the City Treasurer a large franchise tax over and
above the regular assessed tax and the care of the streets. This
franchise tax is based upon the gross earnings.

Mr. Fitzgerald. — Is there any law in the State of Rhode
Island regarding the widening of streets and who pays for them?
I3 there anything definite about that?

Mr. Francis. — Nothing, when streets are widened for street
railway purposes only.

Mr. Fitzgerald. — Then, they have the right to impose the
cost of widening streets upon the street railway ?

Mr. Francis. — Not without the consent of the company.

Mr. Fitzgerald. — Then they have a right to say to the com-
pany, "You can't have the franchise unless you do"?

Mr. Francis. — They can say so.

Mr. Francis stated, in answer to a question whether he ever
had tracks laid on concrete, that they had been so laid where streets
were asphalted on concrete. We have put down a longitudinal con-
crete beam under the rail and then concrete up to the asphalt, or
within 2 inches of the surface. He also stated, in answer to the
further question whether, under these circumstances they would
stone pave around the rail, that they had put in scoria blocks, but
that they did so no longer. When there is a longitudinal support
tiie stone paving is unnecessary.

JOURNAL OF THE ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES. GEORGE B. FRANCIS THE STREET RAILWAY SYSTEM OF PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. AND VICINITY

Rnonr Island Siihiiriian Railway fn M anciifstfii Sthfft r.iu™ II. n

RAILWAY TRACK CONSTRUCTION IN CITY STREETS. 43
II. — Street Railway Track Construction in City Streets.

By Arthur L. Plimpton, Member Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

I shall not attempt to discuss street railway track construc-
tion in general, but shall confine myself almost wholly to the track
construction of the Boston Elevated Railway Company's system.

I will not take up time by describing the various changes
which have taken place in the form of track construction from the
days of the horse car, but will simply call attention to the various
sections of rail that have been used since that time, as shown on
Plates I and II. Before the days of electric cars, the tracks in the
city of Boston and its suburbs were built either of tee rail (see
Plate I, Fig. 7), laid on the side of the road without pavement, or
of tram rail, as it is called (see Plate I, Figs. 3 and 4), which was
laid on stringer timber of sufficient height to allow paving with
granite blocks. Another form, known as the center-bearing rail,
is shown by Figs. 1 and 2 on Plate I. This was used largely in the
tracks in South Boston. These sections were called stringer rails
and were fastened by spikes through the thin or tram part of the
rail to the wooden stringer on which they were laid. Of course,
even with horse cars, these rails were not very satisfactory, as the
heads of the spikes would in time wear off from the teaming traffic
and the rails were constantly becoming loose. So, even before
the introduction of electric cars, the ability to fasten the rail below
the surface and do away with the constant loosening was found to
be a necessity, and light sections of girder rail were coming into
use quite generally. Some that were in use in the Boston tracks are
shown on Plate I. Fig. 6 was Known as the Richards rail, and
Fig. 8 as the Barnes rail. With the introduction of electric cars it
was found that the rail which had served fairly well for horse cars
was entirely inadequate for the greater weights and increased
speeds. The form of rail went through various changes. We tried
an English rail (see Plate I, Fig. 9), which was laid by the original
West End Street Railway Company out on Beacon street. Some
of this still exists in the tracks. A gentleman who came here from
Providence introduced what was known as the Providence girder
rail (see Figs. 10 and 11). This rail was laid on concrete piers,
which supported it every y\ feet, but they proved to be insufficient,
and it became necessary, sooner or later, to go over the road and put
in ties to support it in the old fashion. The failure was largely due

44 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

to the fact that the cars were turned onto the tracks before the
concrete piers had had time to set.

Figs. 12 and 13, Plate I, show some of the early sections laid
on the lines out to Roxbury just before the road was operated
electrically. Figs. 14 and 16 show 6-inch girder sections with the
corresponding guard sections. Fig. 3, Plate II, shows a section of
rail used in reservations. This is a high tee rail, or a girder rail of
the tee form, the height of which is necessary in order to permit
loaming the track and to give a sufficient depth of loam over the
ties.

When deep girder rails were first considered, the thought was
that a rail which would extend from the head a sufficient depth to
allow paving with granite blocks would be a very expensive form.
The attempt was therefore made to get the necessary depth at the
ties without having the rail more than 5 inches deep between
them, and what was known as the welded rail was introduced (see
Plate II, Fig. 1). This had a welded foot at each tie, but it was
never used very extensively.

The next step was to use what is known as the 9-inch girder
rail, which was laid with a plate and which I will describe later.
This gave 10 inches above the ties, permitting the use of an 8-inch
block with cushion of 2 inches of gravel between the block and the
tie. This is our standard rail of to-day, with varying forms of
head, as shown on Plate II, Figs. 4 and 5.

Fig. 6, Plate II, shows the 85-pound tee rail, with bolted guard,
used in the subway track.

On Plate III, Fig. 1, is shown the standard track construction
which has existed since the 9-inch rail was introduced. On top
of the tie there is a plate of cast iron about i\ inches in thickness,
so that, with the rail, which is a little less than 9 inches, we have a
height of 10 inches. The plate has the added advantage of back-
ing up the spikes and holding them against the base of the rail.
The spacing of the holes is very carefully designed, so that it will
have that effect and yet not cause the head of the spike to be
knocked off in sending it home.

When the city first began to put in concrete foundations in the
streets and applied it to the streets where the tracks existed, it
was found that this form of track construction lent itself admirably
to the new conditions, as the depth to the bottom of the tie, some
16 inches, agreed exactly with the depth to the bottom of the con-
crete, and no change in the track construction was necessary. It
could hardly be improved to-day for that particular form of con-
struction. On Washington street the tracks have been renewed

RAILWAY TRACK CONSTRUCTION IN CITY STREETS. 45

and the new rails laid on the same ties, which were found solidly
bedded in the concrete. Our experience proves that there is abso-
lutely no advantage in concreting under the tie. The track con-
struction is bonded to the rest of the street by the tie being bedded
in the concrete ; but, of course, if there is any settlement of the
street below it will all go together, and this would occur even if

PLATE m

FIG. I.

Standard"ten-inch"girder rail construction, -concrete base.

Rail5*high brick Paving Blocks, 3t wide , *■" deep, 8

"^*&*^»-i^^^^^

*9i& ifrflu' "NE « ' , mkk i&G&in&y -

FIG 2.

Suggested shallow construction in brick paving.

&' Concrete

7'tce Rail
70 lbs PehYo

FIG. 3.
STANDARD TEE RAIL CONSTRUCTION IN RESERVATIONS.

there was a bed of concrete under the tie. The pavement in the
track conforms in every way to the rest of the street, there being
2 inches of gravel here as elsewhere.

The tie rod, which is one of the most important parts of the
track and which is required in order to hold it absolutely to gauge,
particularly with these grooved rails, has been largely increased
in size since the days of horse cars, it being now an inch in diameter
at the threaded ends. We find that it not only stands the strains,
5

46 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

but allows something for rusting, so that it remains effective mid
lasts as long as the rest of the track.

A word or two about the joints. As shown in the section,
there are two rows of bolts, twelve bolts to a joint. It is a fish-
plate joint, the center of which is made to bear against the rail ;
and if that point should meet the web of the rail before the plates
come to a proper bearing at the head and base of rail, the strain of
the bolts would bring it to a bearing by bending the plate. It
is designed to just touch there when plates are in their final
position.

Mr. Francis having suggested, as one of the improvements in
track construction, the laying of the rails directly on conc-ete
beams, it may be interesting to state that I have on file in my oiiice
a drawing made by Thomas Doane, dated January 3, 1887, which
shows that form of construction, which, I think, he adapted from
methods used in England at that time. It was when he was con-
nected with the original West End Street Railway Company, and
he was evidently considering the use of this form in those lines in
Biookline where the English rail was used, so that the idea of
laying rails directly on a beam of concrete cannot be considered a
new idea.

It is still an open question as to what is the best form of smooth
pavement for a city street where there is a railroad track, and we
have here in use on our system three different forms of smooth
pavements, namely : asphalt, brick and wooden block pavement.

The form of track construction already described, which lent
itself so admirably to the granite block pavement, is of much
greater depth than is required for the asphalt pavement. There
are 3 or 3J inches of asphalt, and then 6 inches of concrete, so that,
when certain streets were first laid in asphalt and it was applied to
the track, it made all the concrete come above the tie, so that it was
in no way bonded to the track construction. The result is the same
in connection with a brick or wooden block pavement. It soon
proved itself to be a very short-lived construction. In the interests
of permanent construction, the railroad company decided to carry
the concrete to a greater depth in the tracks than in the rest of the
street, so that it would be flush with the bottom of the tie, thus
bonding the track construction to the pavement ; and this method
has been followed during the last three years. This, of course,
makes a very expensive construction. It gives a depth of 12 inches
of solid concrete between the ties. It adds to the cost some $1100
or $1200 per mile; so that, if a number of miles of track were to
be laid, it is obvious that a rail not over 5 inches in height, which

ARTHUR L. PLIMPTON. STEEL RAILWAY TRACK. PLATE I.

PROVIDENCE
GIRDER RAIL
54 Lbs.PerYd.

FIG. 16.

RAILWAY TRACK CONSTRUCTION IN CITY STREETS. 47

would bring the top of the tie up nearer to the top of the concrete,
would give a much more economical construction. The depth of
9 inches for the rail was made necessary only by the depth of the
granite block pavement.

This io-inch construction, as we call it, laid with granite blocks
on gravel base, costs, at present prices, about $18,500 per mile
of track in a paved street where the city paves the roadway and the
center between double tracks, the company paving the part that
comes in each track. Similar pavement, laid with pitch and pebble
joints on concrete foundations, costs about $23,400 per mile. The
asphalted track proves to be the most expensive to build — about
$26,600. The brick costs somewhat less than granite blocks — some
$22,500.

I want to say a few words in regard to the difficulty of putting
in a concrete foundation on a system like the Boston Elevated,
where the cars are run the greater part of the twenty-four hours.
In order to obtain as durable a construction as possible, cars have
been run on a single track and not less than forty-eight hours given
for the concrete to set ; but in some cases it was absolutely im-
possible to do this, as the cars had to be run on both tracks early in
the morning following the night when the concrete was laid. The
concrete not having set, the tracks moved a little under the passing
cars, so that the bond between track and concrete was broken. It
seems to be unavoidable. It probably helps somewhat to pour in
grout along the sides of the rails after the concrete has set. The
only way to do perfect work would be to lay temporary tracks on
the sides of the street; but in narrow streets, with a great deal of
traffic, that is hardly practicable.

Even with the concrete carried up to within 3^ inches of the
top of the rail, as is done in the case of asphalting of the street
where there is considerable traffic, this proves to be a short-lived
construction. The teams start a slight rut next the rail. This
deepens as time goes on ; and, although the tracks may be still
bonded with the street, there will be a chipping and wearing away
of the asphalt, necessitating repairs ; so that, from the company's
standpoint, a block pavement is preferable, and I think the different
superintendents of streets have come to the conclusion that where
there are tracks in the street and it is decided to asphalt the road-
ways, it is far better to pave the tracks and brows outside of them
with granite blocks, filling the joints with pitch and pebbles, than
it is to asphalt them. At first thought one would say that, from
the standpoint of the driving public, the paving should all be
asphalt ; but an inspection of these streets laid with the combina-

48 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

tion pavement, when everything is covered with ice, would show
that the driving public appreciates a roadway in the center of the
street that horses can stand upon.

In the outlying tracks of the system where a reservation has
been constructed in the roadway, another form of track construc-
tion has gradually been introduced which permits all pavement
whatever to be dispensed with. It is considered desirable to make
these reservations grass areas, and thus reduce the dust-bearing
area of the street. At first it was thought that here was an op-
portunity to take up regular steam railroad construction, and a
tee rail was laid in a number of cases in the earlier reservations,
but that did not give a sufficient depth over the ties for the raising
of grass, and a 7-inch section of tee rail has been finally adopted,
laid on a i-inch cast-iron plate, which gives a depth of 8 inches for
loam over the ties (see Plate III, Fig. 3). This gives a much more
elastic track, and the difference can be noted at once in passing
from a solid-paved track onto a reservation track. Of course, the
joint question almost takes care of itself. We have a joint with
two rows of bolts and find there is little trouble in maintaining it.

Some years ago I spoke before this society on the cast welding
of joints, which we were taking up at that time. There are some
objections to the cast welding process, although quite a number of
miles of track have been welded. The heating of the rails will
frequently introduce a slight kink, so it has not been thought ad-
visable to weld any new track, and in some cases it seems to soften
or deteriorate the steel, so that it wears faster where the welds are
made; and, although it largely reduces the number of joints to be
taken care of, even if a certain percentage should break, yet this per-
centage is much larger than we would wish.

In the early days of electric welding several miles of track
were welded here before the process had been perfected and many
breaks resulted. I recently visited the city of Worcester, where at
the present time they are carrying on the electric welding process,
and it seems to have been perfected so that the results now are far
different from what they were at first. The breakage, they state, is
very small, indeed. The process is carried on in such a way that
the head of the rail is not heated or its character changed ; but it
seems doubtful whether it will ever be practicable to take care of
all the tracks in all the cities in this country in that manner. The
necessary plant is very expensive, and the one at Worcester will be
engaged there to the middle of the summer, I understand. A rail-
road can scarcely afford to own one for its own use ; and, even if
it could, in a busy time tracks are being constructed in half a dozen

. - RAILWAY TRACK CONSTRUCTION IN CITY STREETS. 49

or a dozen places at once, and means must be provided for joining
the rails as the work proceeds. Furthermore, the track foreman
should have it in his power to renew a worn or defective rail and
put in the standard joint, which would be out of the question with
any form of welding. So it seems the joint question has not been
fully settled as yet. It seems to me that the coming joint will have
the value of the present fish-plate joint, with a sufficient base sup-
port to hold the rail during the life of the rail. The joint used
in the tracks in our subway seems to nearly fulfill all requirements.
It is what is known as the continuous joint. It is a fish plate car-
ried around and in under the rails, so as to provide, in addition,
a base support.

Coincident with the changes which took place in the track con-
struction, it was necessary to improve the form of construction of
what we call special track work ; that is, crossings or branch-off s
consisting of switches and frogs. In the time of horse cars these
were made of cast iron. Patterns were made in the shops and
castings were made from them as wanted. Perhaps that sufficed
tor the lighter weights, but when the weights and the speed were
increased they proved to be as inadequate as the early rail con-
struction. The first improvement in the special work was to make
it after the general idea of steam railroad frogs and switches ;
that is, they were made of rails cut to the desired lengths and angles
and bolted together; so that the first improvement was the sub-
stitution of rolled steel in the place of cast iron. The trouble with
this class of work was that, before it wore out, the action of the
cars would loosen the fastenings ; and, as we have not the same
opportunity in a paved street of getting at these fastenings that
they have on a steam railroad, the special work often became broken
before the fastenings could be tightened, and was then beyond
repair. The next thought of the railroad people and the manu-
facturers was to produce a solid frog. This was done in two ways :
one by making the center of the frog a steel casting and then weld-
ing on the arms, while another manufacturer offered a frog which
consisted of rails cast together by a mass of cast iron so designed
as to give treads of rolled steel all through the frog.

Then we thought the question of special work was settled. Of
course, anything new appears to be very nearly perfect until it
begins to show its weak points. The defect that first appeared in
this type of special work was the actual wearing out of the frog
centers. Of course, the frog point presents only a narrow surface
for the wheels to run on, and this gets double wear. The street
railroad engineer said to the manufacturer: "You must give us

50 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

something better than rolled steel," and the manufacturer stated
that he thought he was offering all that could be expected in pro-
ducing rolled-steel frogs.

Very soon, however, a new form of frog, called a hardened
center frog, was offered. This first form had a plate of Harveyized
steel set into the center of the frog at the point of greatest wear.
These centers of Harveyized steel proved to be far better than the
rolled steel. Some of the plates showed signs of chipping, but the
centers were made renewable, so that when one became worn, if the
rest of the frog had sufficient life in it, a new one could be inserted.
After using the Harveyized steel centers for a year or two, another
type of construction appeared, in which the frog centers and the
parts of the switches subjected to the greatest wear were made of
manganese steel, and this is what we are still using.

Here are a few dates which may be of interest and which will
show how fast these changes followed one another: The first
girder special work was laid in 1889, then the welded special work
which I spoke of followed along in 1892, and the guarantee center
special work, which has the Harveyized steel centers, was laid in
1894. The manganese steel center work was laid in 1896, and up
to the present time nothing better has been offered ; so it would
seem that, with the form of construction for plain track, shown on
Plate III, with manganese center special work, the necessities in
regard to track work for heavy electric cars have been brought
practically to a point that it is difficult to improve upon.

Mr. Francis suggests certain improvements in track construc-
tion, most of which apply to a private right of way, with the ex-
ception, perhaps, of the use of concrete beams under the rail, which
I have already alluded to.

In regard to the use of guard rails on curves, I will state that
it has been the practice for some time on the Boston Elevated Road
to place them on all curves of less than 1000 feet radius.

I can not agree with Mr. Francis in his suggestion to place the
tongue on the long, or outer, rail of the curve. This would un-
doubtedly work all right with freight cars in city streets, with long-
radius curves and with the deep flanges on the wheels ; but under
the ordinary conditions on street railroads there would be frequent
derailments, as the effect of placing the mate on the short, or inner,
side of the curve is like cutting out a length of the guard. In the
usual arrangement the tongue serves as a guard through the switch.

I do agree with Mr. Francis that it is desirable, wherever pos-
sible, to use double-point switches connected together.

• RAILWAY TRACK CONSTRUCTION IN CITY STREETS. 51

DISCUSSION.

Mr. F. W. Hodgdon. — I should like to ask Mr. Plimpton how
long the rails will last?

Mr. Plimpton. — Of course, that depends very much on the
locality in which they are laid. On a street like Washington street,
between Boylston and Hanover streets, perhaps five or six years.

Mr. Hodgdon. — Then they have to be renewed. Do you find
any improvement of late?

Mr. Plimpton. — I don't think rails wear any better now than
formerly.

Mr. Desmond Fitzgerald. — You spoke about suburban rails
9 inches in height. They are laid direct on ties, are they not?

Mr. Plimpton. — Seven inches ; that is, those that are laid
in reservations. They are laid on a plate 1 inch thick.

Mr. Fitzgerald. — Is the track tied together in any way to
keep it from spreading?

Mr. Plimpton. — There are tie rods five feet apart.

Question. — How does that track compare in durability with
the other track ?

Mr. Plimpton. — The trouble is with the ties, which, as a rule,
rot out in a few years, on account of their being covered with loam,
so that they have to be renewed before the rail is worn out. We
have tried different forms of preservatives, and one that we have
been using for three or four years past we hope will give added
life to these reservation ties. It is bad construction from the rail-
road point of view to put loam on the ties. There is very little
trouble from the rails or joints. It is a more elastic track, because
the track yields under the passing car. Track laid in concrete
has to take the full force of the blows from the wheels.

Question. — That form of construction must run very much
better than $18,000?

Mr. Plimpton. — Yes, sir ; I think it does. These figures, per
mile of track, are for single track.

Mr. Hardy. — I believe tie rods are put in every five or seven
feet. Do they ever fail ?

Mr. Plimpton. — No, sir; we believe that the tie rod is all
right. The lighter form did fail; and we have had to take them
out of many miles of track, replacing them with the heavier rod.

Mr. Allen. — What is the size?

Mr. Plimpton. — 2\ x 13-32 inches, with threaded ends 1 inch
in diameter.

Question. — Do you ever use metal ties?

Mr. Plimpton. — We have used them, but very seldom.

52 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Mr. Sidney Smith. — Can you give me any comparison of the
life of the tie laid under a heavy rail, in one case bedded in con-
crete and in the other in gravel?

Mr. Plimpton. — The question of deterioration of ties does
not concern us, as the ties will outlast the rail in anything except,
perhaps, filled land ; on original land the tie question is not a serious
one at all in street railroad tracks. There is no trouble about
securely holding the base of the rail. It is so far removed from the
force of the blows that it is practically a fixture. •

Mr. Smith. — Then it comes down to this : that, when renewal
of the rail is necessary, it is necessary to remove the pavement and
replace the ties ? Or do you use the same ties ?

Mr. Plimpton. — Yes ; unless the rail wears out in a short
time. The Washington street track was relaid on the same ties
which were bedded in concrete. Of course, they had been in a
very short time for ties.

Mr. H. V. Macksey. — Did I understand you to say that your
company is now welding the joints in new track?

Mr. Plimpton. — We have never welded any joints on new
track.

Mr. Macksey. — Do you weld the old track?

Mr. Plimpton. — Yes.

Mr. Macksey. — Do you still continue?

Mr. Plimpton. — We are not doing any this year.

Mr. Macksey. — Why on old track?

Mr. Plimpton. — The joints in the old track needed attention,
and that seemed to be the best method that was offered of restoring
them. In welding a joint you have the opportunity of wedging
up a rail that has been forced down. It can be set up a little higher
than the other rail ; then, after it is welded, by the use of an emery
wheel it can be ground off and made fairly smooth at that point.

Mr. Macksey. — That still would probably be your custom as
your present work goes on?

Mr. Plimpton. — Of course, we can't say. There are objec-
tions to the cast-welding process, and it would be impracticable
for all railroads to get hold of the electric welding plants. There
are only a few in existence, and they are very expensive plants.

Mr. A. H. Howland. — What load do you figure for bridge
work?

Mr. Plimpton. — We figure that our heaviest cars, loaded,
weigh twenty tons. That figure has been used in bridge calcula-
tions up to recently. The Railroad Commissioners now recommend
that thirty and even forty tons be taken as the weight of a loaded car.

MUR L. PLIMPTON, STEEL RAILWAY TRACK. PLATE Z

7"TE£ RAiL !
70 Lbs Per Vd.

O' WELDED RAIL with CORRESPONDING GUARD RAIL
FIG. I.

Boston Elevated Railwav Cos Standard Sections
8 ||"

No. I. 96 Lbs PehVd
No t 35 Lbs Per Yd
No 3 36 Lbs. Per Yd.

Boston Elevated Railway Cos. Standard Sections.

No.4, 117 Lbs Per-Vo.
No.5. 114- LBS Per Vd.

RAILWAY TRACK CONSTRUCTION IN CITY STREETS. 53

Mr. Francis. — Have you any of that Providence girder in
Boston now?

Mr. Plimpton. — Yes.

Mr. Francis. — You spoke of it as originally laid on concrete.
We still have about 20 miles in Providence, and you went over
some of it to-day.

Mr. Plimpton. — It was originally placed on concrete piers
y\ feet apart. They soon had to put ties under it, however.

Mr. Francis. — The cost of the rolled-steel, 9-inch rail ap-
proximates $43 or $44 per ton. With the high tee rail it is, perhaps,
nearer $28. The grooved rail will probably wear out twice as
quickly as the high tee rail. It probably costs three or four times
as much for the grooved rail construction as for the high tee, if we
could adapt it to street construction. Eventually, I think it will
be adapted to street construction.

54 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

III.— The Relation of Street Railway Tracks to the Paving
of City Streets.

By Mr. Henry Manley, Member Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

In the eye of those having the care of city streets, the rails of
the street railway tracks are a nuisance ; but, as they are permitted
by the State, which is the owner of all streets when there is any-
thing to give away, it becomes the duty of the officers of the city,
with such co-operation of the railway companies as they may secure,
to reduce and abate in part the nuisance which they cannot abso-
lutely control.

The direct connection of the Engineering Department of the
city of Boston with the street railway tracks began in 1891, at
which time the Street Department called upon the engineers for
assistance, and since that time substantially all new track work
and renewals have been laid to grades furnished by the city.
Previous to that time the railway engineers graded their own
tracks and endeavored to fit the surface of the street as they best
could, while maintaining a practicable grade upon which cars could
run.

There was great lack of co-operation between the city and the
railway ; and when one corporation desired to reconstruct a street
surface, the other was seldom ready, and the result was that the
rails were fitted to the street, and later the street fitted to the rails,
and as each work settled more or less, after the round had been
repeated times enough, the tracks in the middle of the street were
frequently found to be lower than the gutters. Latterly, the city
and the railroad have worked more in harmony, but in rearranging
the surface of the streets it has not infrequently been necessary to
Taise the tracks a foot or fifteen inches.

The form of the head of the rail used is a very important
matter to the street surface. The desirable features are : As narrow
a head as feasible, with the necessary groove or slot for the flange
of the wheel made as narrow as may be, so as to keep wide tires
out of it altogether, and of such shape as to enable a narrow-tired
wheel to turn out of it easily without a wrench. The sides of the
rail on each side of the groove should be of equal height, so that
the pavement may be smooth.

The standard rail used in Boston does not absolutely conform
to this specification, but is a compromise between the tram rail
(which has no groove at all and has a difference in height of about

RELATION OF RAILWAY TRACKS TO PAVING STREETS. 55

an inch and a quarter between the two levels) and the full-grooved
rail with the sides of equal height. The difference in height of the
two sides of the Boston standard rail is about -| inch. The full-
grooved rail is very extensively used, however, both in this country
and in Europe.

The next point in which the tracks affect the maintenance of
the street surface is the stability of the track structure. In this
matter it has been necessary for the street railway engineer to
make a radical departure from the practice of the steam railway
engineer. Instead of purposely building an elastic track, the street
railway engineer reverts to the primitive idea in tracks and builds
a solid and immovable structure. In a well-built track the rail is
so deep and the. ties so near together that there is no perceptible
spring to the rail, and the more solidly and firmly the ties are im-
bedded in concrete, instead of the loose ballast of the steam track,
the longer and better do the rails and ties wear. It is left to the
springs of the cars to furnish the desired elasticity. It is apparent
that a street in which this kind of track has been built can be sur-
faced with almost any paving material without much fear of a
dissolution of continuity between the track and the rest of the
street ; but no form of pavement will stand up in contact with an
elastic track, and the attempt to find a pavement that will do so,
or to persuade different kinds of pavement to do so, has caused
endless trouble.

It is the general practice to lay a narrow brow of stone blocks
outside the rails in all asphalt pavement, and either to do the same
on each side of the rail or to pave all the space from out to out of
rails with granite blocks or bricks. It must be remembered that the
asphalt part of an asphalt pavement is only a carpet, and is very
friable. It is very likely to fray out next the rail, even when the
tracks are solidly built. It does just the same when laid against
the stone block brow, perhaps not quite so quickly or generally ; but
by so doing the weak spot has been removed from the area of pave-
ment for which the railroad corporation can be held responsible.

The street railway tracks interfere with the surface drainage
of streets built on side hills or on irregular ground, for the reason
that nothing short of a flood will cross the track. In a few places
drain inlets have been placed between the rails and in a few other
places the rails have been furnished with openings at the bottom of
the groove, thus providing outlets which have been connected with
drains.

Substantially all the railway tracks in Boston are paved. In
macadam streets, where the ties are not imbedded in concrete, it

56 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

is necessary to lay a strip of pavement, usually stone blocks, out-
side each track, wide enough to cover the ends of the ties and to
form a bridge or connecting link between the tracks and the
macadam. A double track, with this paved strip or brow, occupies
about 1 8 feet in width. The minimum width for a paved gutter is
about 3 feet, or 6 feet for both gutters, making 24 feet in all. A
street 60 feet wide has a roadway, between curbs, of 40 feet. If a
double railway track runs through it, there will be left two strips
of macadam, each 8 feet wide. Even this is too narrow a strip to
maintain at average expense, and any street less than 60 feet wide
must be paved with something beside macadam from curb to curb ;
not because it is desired, but because of the street railway.

The cost of repairs of any street of moderate width carrying
railway tracks is increased, first, by the concentration of the traffic,
as teams avoid the tracks ; and still more markedly by the forma-
tion of ruts and grooves caused by teams moving in parallel lines
and all in one direction on each narrow strip of pavement. The
extra cost of these repairs is somewhat a matter of conjecture, but
it is probable that the cost of maintenance in macadam streets is
at least doubled by the presence of the tracks.

OVERHEAD SYSTEM FOR AN INTERURBAN RAILWAY. 57

I Y.— Track and Overhead System for an Internrban Electric

Railway.

By Gilbert Hodges, Member Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

ROADBED AND TRACK.

A modern first-class and fully up-to-date interurban electric
railway should have a location that will admit of the most direct
route with as few curves as possible, and so laid out as to grades as
to have them as easy as possible. In arriving at this condition, it
has been found not only desirable, but most economical to pur-
chase private rights of way, make heavy cuts and embankments
and build costly bridges and culverts. The cross-section of the
roadbed at subgrade should give a full and sufficient shoulder,
beyond the ends of the ties, of not less than 4 feet on each side.
There should be provided suitable drainage or culverts under the
track wherever water is liable to accumulate to prevent washouts.

All bridges should be well designed by a competent engineer,
and made strong enough to carry a car weighing 40 tons on a
17-foot wheel base, with a sufficient factor of safety to avoid ma-
terial tax upon any portion of the structure. If the bridges are to
be of wood, they should have short spans of from 12 to 16 feet,
and where several spans are required they would naturally have
either pile or timber trestle bents. All timber, entering into the
framing of a bridge should be of long leaf Southern pine of the
best grade to be obtained in the market, well framed and thoroughly
fastened in every way.

Where piles are used they should be of upland white oak, if
possible to obtain it. Red oak, chestnut oak and chestnut do not make
satisfactory or durable piles. No piles grown in swampy or low lying
soils should be allowed, as they will generally be found to have
a coarse spongy wood which is sensitive to moisture and liable to
early decay. Great care must be used in the driving of piles, to see
that they not only reach a firm foundation, but also that they are
not split or broomed at the small end by injudicious hammering.
This work should always be done under the inspection of a com-
petent engineer. Where steel bridges are used, they should be
either of eye beams, plate girders, riveted trusses or pin and link
trusses. Eye beams of proper size and number may be used with
safety and economy for spans as high as 30 feet. Plate girders
from 30 to 100 feet. Riveted trusses from 100 to 200 feet. For
all spans over 200 feet in length the best practice is to use the pin

58 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

and link truss. All bridge floors should have ties not less than ten
feet long and spaced not farther apart than eight inches in the
clear. On the outer ends of these ties there should be a guard
stick, gained down between the ties and securely bolted to every
third or fourth tie. The office of these guard sticks is not, as is
generally supposed, to prevent a derailed car leaving the bridge,
for the stick is generally so placed that, should the car go so far
as to reach it, the tendency would be for the car to topple over the
side, regardless of this slight obstruction. The guard stick is intended
to serve as a spacer for the ties, and to keep them in place longi-
tudinally so that they shall not bunch up. Hence the importance
of having the guard sticks gained down not less than an inch on the
ties. For the purpose of keeping a derailed car from leaving the
bridge, a heavy rail should be placed inside each track rail spaced
about 8 inches away from it, and securely spiked and fastened to
the ties. These rails, if properly spaced, will permit of a car drop-
ping between them and the track rail, and will generally keep the
car in that position, thus carrying it along in the direction of the
track and preventing its leaving the bridge or striking the trusses.
Guard rails should extend for a distance of not less than 60 feet
from each end of the bridge, and then be brought to a point at the
center of the track. No bridge, however small, should be without
a protection of this kind. Assuming that the roadbed has been
carefully graded and brought to subgrade, and the drains, culverts
and bridges built, we then come to the work of track laying.

On the subgrade, as prepared, are laid the ties, which should be
not less than 6 inches by 6 inches and eight feet long, of good sound
chestnut, if possible to obtain. Ties should be hewn rather than
sawn, and should be straight and lie level and true on their
beds. They should be spaced not more than 2 feet on centers. To
these ties are spiked the rails, which should be of a good section of
Tee rail, weighing not less than 60 pounds to the yard. Most
interurban roads use 70 pounds, and some use 75 and even 80
pounds. These rails should be 30 feet in length, and should have
an improved joint, such as the Continuous or the Weber joint.
Joints need not be over 24 inches long if of either of the two
kinds mentioned. Too long a joint is as detrimental to track as is
too short a joint. These joints may be laid squarely across the
track, or they may be staggered or broken, as desired.

The discussion on this question is still going on, and each side
has many sponsors.

An allowance for contraction and expansion should be made
at every joint, usually about -J inch for every 30- foot rail laid at

OVERHEAD SYSTEM FOR AN INTERURBAN RAILWAY. 59

the average temperature. The spikes should be 5^ x 9/16 inches,
and of the best quality of tough material. There should be four
spikes to each tie; those on the inside so driven that they do not
come directly opposite those on the outside of the rail. Very care-
ful and thorough driving is quite essential. In placing the joint
plates in position, care should be taken that they have a good bear-
ing upon the rail, the nuts screwed up on the outside and the whole
joint made rigid and firm. Care should be taken to have gauge
lines of the two rails coincide at all joints.

After the. rails have been spiked to the ties to a true gauge,
the ballast should be put in place. This ballast should consist of
good clean sharp gravel or of broken stone of a suitable size, and
should have a depth of 2 feet and extend for at least 2 feet beyond
the ends of the ties. In bringing the track to its proper surface and
alignment, shovel tamping may be allowed, but no shovel tamping
should ever be allowed on finished work. After the track has been
thoroughly tamped, the ballast should be rounded off on the sides,
and the entire roadbed left in a neat and smooth condition.

When the track has been made secure in true line and surface,
the electrical connections may be made. All holes for electrical
connection should be carefully drilled, and they should be reamed
out or otherwise made bright and clean throughout their perimeter,
immediately before the bond is applied. There should be two rail
bonds, of not less than 4/0 capacity each, at every joint ; and cross-
bonds of the same capacity should be put in place, one in every 300
feet. These bonds should not be applied by hammer riveting, but
should be put in place by pressure, either of screws or by hydraulic
pressure, to insure the best possible contact. The track return, on
electric railways, has so far not proved entirely satisfactory. Vari-
ous attempts have been, and some are now being made, to discover
a more practical and more reliable means of carrying the current
by the joints, but so far it does not appear that any better means
have been devised than that described herein ; and therefore, with
the knowledge that the best we have is not absolutely certain to
keep up the voltage a long distance from the sources of power,
it is evidently wise for us to use the best methods and best appli-
ances that have so far been found.

All curves of 500 feet radius or less should be well guarded, not
with another rail or other makeshift, but either by a bolted-on Z
guard or by a rolled guard rail. On curves of very short radius,
both rails should be guarded, and wherever it is possible all curves
should be well elevated, to insure the safe and comfortable passage
of cars at high speed. Curves of sharp radius should be either

60 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

compounded or laid with spiral or easement curves at their ends.
The turnouts or side tracks for interurban roads should have split
switches of the Lorenz or other similar pattern, with spring frogs,
and their leads should be not less than 60 feet. Wherever the car
houses are located, their switches, curves and connecting tracks
should, if possible, lead out of a side track or turnout rather than
out of the main line. Wherever cross-connections are used in
double track lines, they should if possible be trailing cross-overs,
so that cars running on their proper tracks would pass through the
heel of the switch first. .

The summing up of our remarks on track work will be, then :
Prepare a good foundation ; use large ties, close together ; lay-
thereon good heavy rails ; have plenty of good ballast, well put in
place ; make the best possible electrical connections and slight
nothing ; do not for one minute forget that good, substantial, well-
laid track is a vital factor in the economical operation of a road and
is a large factor in the earning capacity.

This is not imagination. The wisest railway operators are of
this opinion, although a realization of its truth came very slowly,
indeed, to some of them.

OVERHEAD SYSTEM.

Next to the track work, in the construction and equipping of
an electric railway, comes the overhead system. In overhead con-
struction the first item to be considered will naturally be that of
poles. These should be of good sound chestnut, if possible to
obtain, and unless otherwise restricted by local requirements. Hard
pine poles are to be avoided wherever and whenever possible, as
they are often very short lived and therefore very expensive to
maintain, as well as being somewhat more costly at the outset. If
square or hexagon poles are absolutely required, within the limits
of cities or thickly settled villages, it will be found to be economical
to obtain good-sized chestnut poles and have them sawed to shape,
for they will have the longer life. We know of one urban road
in this state, that now has large numbers of this kind of poles, and
they have found them to be entirely satisfactory, so far as we have
teen informed. All chestnut or round poles designed for an in-
terurban railway should be not less than 35 feet in length. They
should finish not less than 7 inches in diameter at the small end, and
should be no less than id inches in diameter 7 feet from the butt
or large end, and they should be straight and sound. Hard pine
poles, if used, should be of good sound long leaf Southern pine,

OVERHEAD SYSTEM FOR AN INTERURBAN RAILWAY. 61

10 x io inches and 35 feet long, with tops not less than 7x7 inches.
The poles should be fitted with two cross-arms, to provide properly
for both direct and alternating current transmission wires as well
as the necessary telephone and block signal circuits. These cross-
arms should be of such sizes and so arranged as to meet the re-
quirements, which will probably not be the same on any two roads.
Generally it is thought well to have one two-pin arm above and
one four-pin arm below. It is hardly necessary to say that cross-
arms should be so placed as to come on opposite sides of adjacent
poles, in order to form what is known as a storm line. Locust pins
are used on straight lines, and iron pins or guard irons should be
used on all curves or wherever any unusual strain is brought upon
the pins. All poles should be well gained and roofed, and en-
tirely stripped of bark before setting. They should be well set to
a true line, and with sufficient rake to present a good appearance
when the line work is finished. Poles should be 6 feet in the
ground on straight lines, and at least 7 feet on curves. The earth
or other filling should be well and thoroughly rammed around the
pole, so that it will be firmly bedded and held solidly in place. No
pole should be placed less than 5 feet from the nearest rail and no
two poles should be further apart than 100 feet. Some interurban
roads have cross-suspension or span wire construction throughout,
on account of the heavy trolley wires and the correspondingly
heavy overhead material. Where brackets are used, the flexible or
Craighead type has been found to be the best. They should have
extra heavy brace rods, and be not less than 9 feet long. They
should be securely fastened to the poles at a uniform height from
the rail. Spans should be made of seven-strand 5/16-inch wire,
all guy wires of No. 4, and all anchor and pull-off wires of No. 6,
best grade of galvanized wire, fastened to the poles by f-inch eye-
bolts with 5-inch thread. It is considered good practice to have two
trolley wires on long distance interurban roads. They are generally
cf large size, either 3/0 or 4/0, and of a grooved pattern. The
wire should be hard drawn and of not less than 95 per cent, con-
'ductivity. They should be strung not less than 18 feet above the
rail, and may be placed higher. Grooved trolley wires are sup-
ported by mechanical clips of brass or composition, of a length
sufficient to produce an even surface for the wires. First-class hard
rubber or compressed mica, surrounding the metallic portion of
the hanger, is considered the best insulation. The very best over-
head material that is made is none too good, and quality and dur-
ability, rather than price, should govern in the selection of all over-
head material.
6

02 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The feeder and return wires may be of copper or aluminum.
The latter is very much lighter than copper. It is generally used
at about 61 per cent, conductivity. At that value it weighs about
half as much as copper of 95 per cent, conductivity, and, at present
prices of copper, is about the same cost for wire, while a saving
will be made in freight, cost of handling and labor of erection. It
is strong and durable when in the form of a stranded cable, and
has been proved for efficiency and economy. Where high tension
or alternating transmission wires are to be put in place, they should
have special insulators tested for the high voltage, of a good design
and reliable manufacture. These high tension wires may be of
Xo. 2 or No. 4 B. & S. gauge, and they are usually arranged for a
three-phase system. This will, however, be governed by the types
and the voltages of the instruments at the power station. All direct
current feeders should be tapped to the trolley wire often enough to
give good distribution to the current. This spacing of taps will be
governed by the location of heavy grades and by the size and num-
ber of the trolley wires in use. The overhead system should be
divided into sections convenient for the operation of the road, and,
so far as possible, to obviate the crippling of the service in case of
breakdowns, storms or other emergencies on the l'ine. It is not
necessary to paint the poles, nor has any form of preservation so far
been used that has proved to be of much value for prevention of
decay at the ground line. Painted poles, however, present a better
appearance, and in villages and thickly settled districts they will be
found to be desirable.

THIRD RAIL SYSTEM.

The third rail system has for a number of years been in use,
both in Europe and in this country, but until recently has not been
used much for surface roads. In order to have this system of
practical value, it should be applied to such roads only as are largely
outside of the highways and where the highway travel will not
reach it. In other words, a road using this system should be located
almost entirely on a private right of way. Of course this would not
prevent any such road from using the highways at termini, or at
important points en route where the overhead system would be
necessary. There must, however, be long stretches of road where
the third rail can be safely used, before it can be economical to put
it in use.

When they were first brought into use, a hooded or yoke rail
was used, of a special pattern costly to roll. This rail was put' in
place in the center, between two track rails, but it has been super-

OVERHEAD SYSTEM FOR AN INTERURBAN RAILWAY. 63

seded by a tee rail on insulating blocks, placed either midway be-
tween the two track rails, or to one side of the track, according to
the location of the contact brushes on the cars. The track con-
struction, on a road of this type, should be about the same as, and
ought to be fully up to the standard of, the road which we have
just described. The overhead system will, of course, be done away
with, and in its place a rail, having a low percentage of carbon,
with the necessary joints, insulators, cables at crossings and other
applications, must be put in place. When the third rail is located
outside of the track rails, it has been placed about 26 inches away
from the nearest rail, -and it is elevated above the track rails in
order to give good and sufficient insulation. For this purpose,
extra long ties, about 9 feet 3 inches, are necessary, once in about
every 10 feet. These ties should have sawn faces, and be of such
wood as will hold bolts or lag screws. The insulators should, be-
side having the required insulating quality, also have strength to
sustain the heavy third rail, which usually weighs about 80 pounds
per yard. As already stated, this rail should be of a stated mixture
of metal, and have an exceedingly low percentage of carbon, man-
ganese and phosphorus.

It is the custom to provide, in the third rail, sufficient capacity
to carry the entire current between sub-stations without any added
feeders, and on this account the bonds at the joints must be of a
capacity to carry this current, probably upward of 400,00 CM. in
most cases. These bonds can be applied to the bottoms of the rails,
where they are out of the way and where a very satisfactory attach-
ment can be made. Underground cables are used at highways and
farm crossings to complete the circuit, on account of the rail being
broken at those places.

In addition to a very careful fencing of the right of way, it
will be necessary to construct cattle guards at all points where
crossings or openings into the highway occur. There are at present,
m Xew England and vicinity, but two roads which use the third
rail outside of the Boston Elevated Railway, which, of course, is a
purely city road and is not of the class now under consideration.

COST.

The cost of the roadbed, track and overhead system for interur-
ban roads will vary, of course, according to the type of construction
adopted, the character of the country through which it is located
and the relative location and number of its power stations. For an
example I will quote a road that is now approaching completion,
and which is a good sample of the road which I have described.

64 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The cost per mile, not including anything for equipment, power
plant, buildings, etc., will be practically as follows:

COST OF ROADBED AND TRACK! FOR ONE MILE.

14,300 cubic feet of earthwork at 45 cents $6,435.00

325 cubic yards rock work at $1.75 568.75

Three acres of clearing and grubbing at $75 225.00

3000 cubic yards of gravel ballast at 50 cents 1,500.00

640 rods wire fencing at $1 640.00

Pipe culverts 50.00

Masonry for bridges and culverts 1,000.00

Wooden and steel bridges 1,300.00

Land for private right of way 1,000.00

Total roadbed $12,718.75

TRACK.

no tons 70-lb. tee rails at $31-50 $3,465.00

360 continuous rail joints at $1.54 • 554-4°

2640 6" x 6" x 8' chestnut ties at 54 cents 1,425.60

5870 lbs. spikes at 2% cents 132.07

720 bonds in place at 61 J4 cents 442.80

17 cross bonds at 50 cents in place 8.50

Labor laying track 1,056.00

Teaming material ' 270.00

Total track 7-354-37

Superintendence and engineering 500.00

Total roadbed and track $20,573.12

OVERHEAD SYSTEM FOR ONE MILE.

Poles, brackets, cross-arms, etc., in place $650.00

Trolley wires and overhead material in place 1,100.00

Direct and alternating current feeders in place 1,750.00

Block signal and telephone systems 2,000.00

Superintendence and engineering 100.00

Total overhead system 5,600.00

Total $26,173.12

The foregoing figures include nothing for interest during con-
struction. The construction of the roadbed and track for the third
rail system, as applied to an interurban railway, will be found very
nearly, if not quite as high, as the cost of a railway using the
overhead system and on the same locations, when the cost of all the
necessary additional safeguards is taken into consideration.

With reference to the general subject of the need of the best,
most substantial and most carefully planned roadbed, track and
overhead system for interurban roads, we wish to reiterate what we
have before said as to its importance, its ultimate economy and

OVERHEAD SYSTEM FOR AN INTERURBAN RAILWAY. 65

advisability from all practical points of view. When we consider
that 40 miles per hour will be the possible speed of the cars upon
a road now being built in Massachusetts, which is, we are informed,
to adopt a schedule time of 20 miles per hour including all stops,
and that we, ourselves, have ridden on a single track interurban
road in Ohio at the rate of 60 miles per hour for 21 miles on a
special trip, and that the schedule on that road calls for nearly 50
miles in places, it is evident that the money, carefully and judici-
ously spent to secure the very best construction in all parts of a
property which goes to -make up the way for the passage of the
cars at these high rates of speed, is well spent, and that any scrimp-
ing or saving in this direction is not only poor economy, but is the
most unwise policy that can be pursued. To those who have long
advocated the building of roads in a substantial manner, who have
on their part endeavored to see that roads under their supervision
were so built, it is a source of satisfaction to see, at last, the owners
and operators of railway properties fast coming into line and con-
structing their roads more and more in accordance with what is the
best and most modern practice.

66 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

V. — Street Railways and State Highways.

By Harold Parker, Member Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

The Massachusetts Highway Commission was permanently
organized upon a plan laid before Governor Russell by a prelim-
inary committee appointed to investigate and report. A year of
quite hard work of this committee resulted in an elaborate report
and recommendations and a draft of a bill. This bill became the
foundation of the highway laws of Massachusetts. From year to
year certain changes or modifications of the original statutes have
been made, but in the main the law stands as at first drawn. It is
gratifying to know that since 1894 many of the other States have
followed Massachusetts in respect to highways, and the Massa-
chusetts laws and regulations are examined with the greatest care
in preparation for similar legislation in other commonwealths.

The fundamental theory of Massachusetts highway policy and
the aim of the Massachusetts Highway Commission is to establish
a network of excellent roads, suited in each case to the traffic over
them, connecting each town with its market, and thus ultimately
creating continuous roads from city to city, from end to end of the
State and with the adjoining States north, west and south. The
Highway Commission does not, by any means, consider through
roads (roads leading most directly from one large city to another)
as the main object. It does, however, believe that these through
roads will ultimately be the result of first uniting each town with
its neighboring town, working out in radial lines from the centers
of distribution through all adjacent villages and through them to
those beyond. You will realize, upon a little consideration, that
the same thing that creates the need for a street railway also makes
a smooth, hard road not only to be desired, but a practical neces-
sity— to wit, the assurance of the speediest, smoothest and most
economical means of conveying yourself and your product to
market and back again.

The difference between a State highway and a street railway,
so far as its actual relation to the public is concerned, is that the
latter is used for greater distances than the former. The average
distance driven is not over five miles. For greater distances other
means of conveyance than a horse and carriage will generally be
employed. What I mean to call your attention to is that both State
highways and street railways follow about the same general lines
of travel, and that, although one conveys passengers to a greater

STREET RAILWAYS AND STATE HIGHWAYS. 67

distance than the other, they both lead into the nearest and most
important center of population. So it appears that, if a through
line of either highway or street railway is developed, it must, from
the nature of its evolution, pass through as many towns on the
way as it can make available.

A few years ago no one would have ventured to predict the
extraordinary growth of street railways ; neither would one have
predicted the State highway as it is ; but that they have grown
together and along the same lines shows the very strong public
need which these two serve. The street railway law of 1898 gave
to street railway franchises a permanent value which they did not
previously possess ; and this, added to their vast usefulness, has
brought into their management and development a grade of men
very much superior to those who put the early ones in motion.
These men see very clearly the wisdom, not to say necessity, of
giving the public the best service and at the same time securing the
most stable track and the most smooth-running cars, with every
possible improvement brought into use.

There is little doubt that up to the present time the street rail-
way system of Massachusetts has been the best that has been pro-
duced anywhere in the world. I mean by "the best" that which
gives the smoothest track, the most commodious cars, the greatest
speed consistent with safety, the most satisfactory service and the
longest ride for the money.

I have tried to indicate how these two great foundations for
travel have grown in importance side by side. It follows, of course,
that they must come into contact. The laws of the State give to the
State Highway Commission all necessary authority to protect the
public welfare, except that they do not give it the right to act in
a judicial capacity. It can fix the location and grade of any street
railway that proposes to come within the side lines of a State high-
way, or of any that already occupies a road subsequently laid out
as a State highway, and it may apportion the cost of changing the
grade or line. It may, also, upon petition of proper parties, estab-
lish line and grade for a street railway on any road that it may
decide shall at some future time become a State highway, and may
apportion the expense between the Highway Commission and the
street railway company. It may determine the size and shape of
the rail, the kind of surface, the place and method of crossing, the
extension of culverts and bridges.

It being manifestly the duty of the Commission to take care of
the public safety and convenience, no track can be laid within the
limits of a State highway without a special decree showing the

68

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

k

Qs

1

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STREET RAILWAYS AND STATE HIGHWAYS. 69

exact location of track and profile, with specifications in detail.
Where a change of grade is necessary in cases where the street rail-
way is already on the ground, the Commission carefully computes
the share of expense that the railway company should pay, and
the agreement between the two is made before the work begins.

The nearest rail is never allowed to be nearer than 4 feet from
the edge of the macadam, and a greater distance is to be preferred.
The Commission has usually required the street railway track to
conform to the line of the cross-section, following the regular slope
of f inch to 1 foot. In practice, however, it has been found that
this outline of cross-section is not always the best. Under these
conditions water, in passing off the road surface, follows the rails,
and in grades often does much damage. It also frequently hap-
pens that, in heavy soil in cold weather, the ground is heaved
above the rail, and much inconvenience, not to say danger, results.
Further than this, it does not seem quite the fair thing to turn
all the water from the highway onto the street railway track,
although the State, under the law, must maintain the whole. It
seems to us that, under ordinary conditions, it is probably better to
lay out a shallow depression or gutter between the shoulder of the
highway and the end of the tie. It frequently happens that, for
other reasons than these, it is better to elevate the track above the
road. It is usual for the Commission to require the railway com-
pany to extend culverts or bridges similar in design to that used in
the highway. WThere it is necessary for a street railway to cross
a highway, the grade line is accurately determined so as to cause
as little depression in the highway as possible. The weight and
section of rail and kind of surface to be used are specified in the
decree. We have usually found that a brick surface between the
rails, and 18 inches or more outside, are best. There is, of course,
no end to the number of individual points of contact between street
railway companies and the Highway Commission, but a considera-
tion of these would be outside the scope of these remarks. Since
I have been a member of the Commission there has hardly been
an instance in which the street railway officials have not readily
accepted our conditions, even where these involved them in con-
siderable additional expense.

In concluding these remarks, which have been, of course, of
a very superficial character, I wish to add that I believe the means
of transportation, barring steam railroads, perhaps, are better in
Massachusetts than elsewhere in the known world, and that the
laws regulating them more thoroughly protect the passenger and
secure his comfort and ease; and that, to a surprising degree, the

70 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

managers of street railways realize this and lend their aid to its
accomplishment. It may be said that it is manifestly to the interests
of these corporations to do this. Yet we should congratulate our-
selves that their wisdom is great enough to see it. The duty of the
Highway Commission is to preserve the equipoise of justice and
reason, and to build good and useful roads.

President Kimball. — We have with us, this evening, Mr.
Sergeant, Vice-President of the Boston Elevated Railway, and I
will ask him to say a few words.

Mr. C. S. Sergeant. — Mr. President and Gentlemen: The
hour is so late that I think the kindest thing I can do is to express
my hearty thanks for the pleasure I have enjoyed in going on your
trip this afternoon and in hearing the papers presented this evening.

I may, however, call attention to one point. Your speakers
this evening have brought out two old conflicts — the conflict be-
tween the track construction and the car construction, and the
conflict between that track construction which is best for cars and
that which is best for vehicles — and those two irreconcilable con-
flicts have been going on ever since I have been connected with
street railways, and I fear they will continue to go on.

In connection with the railways, there is coming in one new
element that has to do with safety. The interurban car is coming
here, and it is coming everywhere. That interurban car must travel
at high speed ; must have a broader tread and a deeper flange, and
must come into the heart of the city. This requires some form of
rail that will enable the car to run in the country and a form that
will enable it to ran in the city. This brings up a question which
is looming up before street railway and highway engineers. The
question of economy has never been permitted to count. Great
expense to street railways in renewing tracks has resulted from
the fact that wheel treads were so narrow that the tracks soon
pounded out. They very quickly wore out the metal and came down
on the flanges. Then we had to take out the rail and throw it
away. The question of expense has never been permitted to regu-
late the form of rail ; but when the question of safety of interurban
passengers comes up, some compromise rail, which gives greater
safety and longer life, will have to be adopted.

ROTATIVE PUMPING. 71

ROTATIVE PUMPING.

By John Richards, M.E., Member of the Technical Society of the

Pacific Coast.

[Read before the Society, June 6, 1902.*]

The most remarkable feature, in fact, in the implements of
modern engineering is the change from reciprocating to rotative
machines such as involve fluid action. It is so extensive and is
moving so fast that one is led to doubt the old rule of "A Century
of Evolution" for any noted change in engineering practice.

It required a full century to develop reciprocating steam en-
gines ; and it is only in the last decade that scientific men began to
perceive the ultimate results that could be expected in these im-
portant machines, and there are doubtless present many people
who have observed the whole of the final and rapid improvements
during the last twenty years, which have been more and greater
than during eighty years that preceded.

The latest phase, and most important of all, is the change
from direct pressure or reciprocating engines to the impulsive or
free-running type without steam-close bearing. Ten years or so
ago, in a paper read before this Society, I had the temerity to enter
upon some prophecy respecting this matter of impulsive or turbine
steam engines, but am as much surprised as my fellow members
at the extraordinary progress made in that direction and the ful-
fillment of that prophecy.

Such engines do not form a part of the present paper, and are
mentioned here to illustrate analogous progress made in machines
for impelling fluids and to point out how machinery for pumping
fluids, both elastic and inelastic, is assimilating water wheels or
machines for receiving and transmitting the force of the same
fluids under pressure, and that we are now, as may be assumed,
near a point when the laws that govern the action of such machines
will become known and form a safe guide to their successful con-
struction.

I will include in these preliminary remarks a quotation from a
letter recently received from Mr. Charles Brown, C.E. of Basel,
Switzerland, who, although retired from actual practice after an
experience of nearly fifty years, gives much useful consideration to
this subject of fluid machines.

The extract is as follows :

*Manuscript received June 18, 1902. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

72 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

With this century we have certainly entered an anti-reciprocating
machinery epoch. The Parson's Turbo is working its way rapidly. The
works of Messrs. Brown, Bouverie & Co., at Baden, Switzerland, and
Mannheim, in Germany, are crowded with orders. Last year they began
selling, and have placed some eight turbo-engines and dynamos of 150
to 5000 horse power. The consumption of steam is low, being 12 pounds
of water per indicated horse power for the smaller sizes and down to
g]/2 pounds for larger sizes, distancing altogether reciprocating steam
engines of the highest class, and, added to this economy of steam con-
sumption, there is the saving in lubricating materials, and consequent
grease-free condensed steam for supplying the boilers, which run for
indefinite periods without scaling, so that a less number of stand-by or
reserve boilers are required. There is also a great saving in the item
of repairs, and they require very little looking after, one man sufficing
for several engines.

Compare the above with the case of large reciprocating engines. The
American Allis engines of the Glasgow electric street railways require
for each engine some seven greasers to keep the multiplicity of organs
properly supplied and cleaned, in addition to two engine tenders, or about
nine men in all, a number sufficient to attend all the turbo-engines in
existence if they were assembled in one place.

I hear it is decided to employ Parson's turbine engines for the
70 to 100,000-horse-power station for the unification of the London Metro-
politan Railways. Mr. Parsons is now making direct-connected rotary
fans to deliver air at a pressure of 25 pounds per inch.

Besides this extract, Mr. Brown's letter contains much news
relating to European practice that is of equal interest, including
some remarks upon the Rat'eau engines made in Paris, also respect-
ing the De Laval system; and I might, if time and circumstances
permitted, say something of recent practice in this city pointing to
important advances in impulsive motive machines for both water
and steam.

Reverting now to pumping apparatus for liquids of the rotary
free-running or centrifugal type, it has been following its course
of evolution, not regularly, but in a spasmodic way, since it took
on a practical or commercial form in 1820 to 1830.

The energy of impellers can be exerted on either of the angles
A E or C, in Fig. 2, or on any intermediate angle. Radial action,
as on the line A, may result from centrifugal force or from im-
pulsive force, owing to speed of revolution, the form of vanes or
the velocity of the water, but the kinetic energy in the water can
not be converted to pressure without water spaces arranged as in
the Sulzer pumps, of which drawings are given. At the other
angles, E and C, the resultant energy of flow, or tangential energy
it is called, can be utilized inductively as in common centrifugal
pumps, but at considerable loss owing to the differences of velocity.

ROTATIVE PUMPING. 73

This effect costs nothing in a constructive way except a volute form
for the casing, which harmonizes to some extent the velocities of
the impeller and the flowing water acted upon, which velocities
vary from four to one to ten to one owing to the head or pressure.
The origin and history of mechanical invention is a matter of
no practical importance, but is always of interest, and I will quote
here from an article of my own, written in 1886, relating to the
centrifugal type of pumps which until very recently have re-
mained the most important of their class:

I presume each of the prominent nations in Europe considers the
invention of centrifugal pumps as belonging to their people, and it was
a matter of no concern until the method came to be extensively applied
to useful purposes and took its place as a manufacture, but there is
scarcely a doubt that the first organized centrifugal pump was invented by
Denis Papin, about two hundred years ago, in Hesse, Germany, where it
was called the "Hessian suck." This pump of the celebrated Frenchman,
of which there are drawings in existence, was by no means a bad one,
and in all essential features, except a volute casing, corresponded to the
construction afterward adopted in this country in 1818 and continued with
but little change.

The celebrated Dutch engineer, Huet, says that Perreboom intro-
duced horizontal centrifugal pumps in Holland in the first years of the
nineteenth century; but as no precise date or examples are named, some
allowance can be made for Huet's evident prejudice against centrifugal
pumping, because he instantly follows this remark with the statement
that thirty years later Lipkens made his celebrated single-acting pumps
for draining Haarlem Lake. Huet's work, "Stoombemaling Van Polders
and en Boezems," 1885, gives scant mention of centrifugal pumping,
although at that time such pumps might be said to have supplanted to
a great extent the old cumbrous Dutch pumps in Holland, as elsewhere.

Another of the oldest drawings, extant at this time, is that of Le
Demours, a Frenchman, dating from 1732. It is a kind of "Barker mill"
machine, and the forerunner of various pumps on the same principle,
that of Barker's mill inverted, which have been periodically invented ever
since, one within the writer's knowledge a few years ago here in Cali-
fornia. The same invention, or "mode of operating," is said to have been
discovered in connection with reaction water wheels in their overrunning
and drawing the water from the chute or inlet after the gates were shut.

Mr. Whitelaw, an inventor of reaction water wheels in their common
or applied form, himself converted the method to pumping by centrifugal
force and made pumps of the submerged type that gave some very good
results, which were fortunately tabulated in a careful manner, in 1849,
at Johnstone, near Glasgow. These tables contained factors for friction
of both water and machinery, with exact measure of resistance and power,
that would do credit to a scientific commission of our day. Whitelaw's
pumps were first made about the year 1848.

A centrifugal pump of the type shown in Fig. I was made in
Massachusetts in 181 8, found its way to New York and in 1830

74

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

such pumps were exhibited there as a known invention. These
pumps, as may be seen, embodied most of the features of common
practice. From this followed a number of examples in this country
of which we have sparse record down to 1851, when Mr. James
Gwynne, who had made his past pumps in this country, began their
introduction in England and established their manufacture there,
which has continued very successfully ever since.

Centrifugal pumps are in many ways an attractive manufac-
ture. They all operate with a reasonable degree of efficiency, ad-
mit of cheap, inaccurate fitting and are produced at a very low
first cost; good enough for most purposes when the pressure is
slight, but under higher pressures, or exceeding 50 pounds per
inch of area, a purely centrifugal pump encounters various resist-
ances that interfere with its efficiency.

Fig. 1.

Massachusetts Pump,

1818.

Fig. 2.

Assumed Resultant

Angles.

I will add to these remarks on the centrifugal class of pumps
by quoting from Prof. W. C. Unwin in the discussion of a paper
I had the honor to present before the Association of Mechanical
Engineers in London in 1888, on "Irrigating Machinery of the
Pacific Coast" :

What would most attract the notice of English engineers was the
account given of centrifugal pumps, especially of compound centrifugal
pumps. These had been proposed a very long time ago, having been
described in Morin's book on pumps; but for some reason or other they
had never found favor in this country, and comparatively few had been
constructed in Europe. But obviously in California they had succeeded;
and, looking at them from any theoretical point of view, they certainly
ought to succeed. He could not conceive why, in many cases where
centrifugal pumps were used in this country with moderately high lifts,
the pumps had not been made compound. It appeared to him that the
whole of the difficulty which arose in adapting the centrifugal pump to a
moderately high lift was cleared when the pump was made compound.
Perhaps some of the members might have seen in Manchester the triple

ROTATIVE PUMPING. 75

compound centrifugal pump designed by Prof. Osborne Reynolds, which
was working with great success and, he believed, with considerable
efficiency.

In page 39 of the paper it was stated that after the head reached
40 feet the efficiency of centrifugal pumps fell off rapidly, but he knew
of some practical results which would contradict that, and especially from
the theoretical point of view he could not conceive why at 40 feet head
the efficiency should in any way diminish. The centrifugal pump was
simply a reversed turbine, and turbines were being put up on falls not of
40 feet, but of 400 feet, and showed the same efficiency at the higher head
as at the lower. He did not know of any instrument used by engineers
in the design of which there was sometimes more recklessness of scientific
considerations than was seen in the design of centrifugal pumps. Either
a centrifugal pump was put up to work on lifts varying from o to 30
or 40 feet or, if the lift were constant, the pump was expected to pump
sometimes 1000 gallons an hour and sometimes 10,000. No single machine
like a centrifugal pump could possibly be adapted to such great variations
of condition without working for a great part of the time at a low
efficiency.

The low efficiency of the centrifugal pump had arisen chiefly from two
causes. The first was that the pump was expected to adapt itself to the
motor, instead of the motor being adapted to the pump. It was con-
venient to run an engine at a certain speed suited to the engine itself,
and therefore the pump was wanted to run at the speed which suited the
engine. The efficiency of the centrifugal pump, like that of the turbine,
Avas very closely connected with the diameter of the pump, and, if good
efficiency was wanted in centrifugal pumps, they must be made of a
diameter which suited the lift. The friction of the pump increased some-
thing like as the fifth power of the diameter; whence it was to see that
the was-te of work, which was almost entirely friction in the pump,
increased very fast if the pump was made of too large a diameter. The
second cause of low efficiency in centrifugal pumps was the absence of
proper arrangements for utilizing the kinetic energy of the water leaving
the pump disc.

The first attempts at higher heads and pressures by cumulative
action of centrifugal pumps in a commercial way was on this coast
about 1885, and was reasonably successful; quite so in respect to
endurance, as one machine, the second one made, remained in use
for fourteen years, operating during the irrigating season. It is
true that previous examples of multiple or cumulatively acting
pumps had been made, notably those mentioned by Professor
Umvin, in which a great number of stages were employed, but so
far as known the system first assumed a practical importance on
this coast at the time above named.

In England the cumulative system first took practical form in
the pumps invented by Prof. Osborne Reynolds, patented there and
in this country; but those acted by helical vanes combined with
centrifugal ones, and as these two forces do not correlate or follow

76 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

the same law, except at certain specific relations, there was the im-
pediment of adaptation to varying heads and speed of revolution
that defeated commercially what was otherwise a very ingenious
design and invention.

Following this came the Sulzer pumps that have achieved a
wide celebrity and have obtained a very high efficiency, as noted on
the table herewith made up from actual results.

Gallons raised per

minute 285 444 634 870 1,400 2,060 3,170 4,120 5,706

Head in feet, one-
stage 78 in 164 246 262 262 262 262 262

Head in feet, two- *

stage 157 222, 328 492 524 524 524 524 524

Head in feet, four-
stage 315 446 656 084 1,050 1,050 1,050 1,050 1,050

Efficiency, per cent. . 67 70 72 74 75 76 76.5 T] 77.6

Table shows results from four Sulzer pumps.

Fig. 3. Sulzer Pump, Cross Section.

Full publicity has been given to various instalments of these
pumps, such as that at' the Geneva Water Works and others in
Europe, where the pressures were from 100 to 200 lbs. per inch and
the efficiency attained as is noted in the table. In one case in Spain,
at the Horcajo mines, a triple installation operates against a head

ROTATIVE PUMPING.

77

of 1550 feet with an efficiency of more than 70 per cent., and per-
haps double what is usually attained with the ordinary displacement
mine pumps connected in the usual manner. A full account of this
plant is given in Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, Vol. 45, of 1901,
by Dr. F. Heerwagen.

Figs. 3 and 4 show sections of a four-stage Sulzer pump
adapted to operate against a head of 800 feet, or a pressure of 387
pounds per inch. The drawings do not in several respects repre-
sent Messrs. Sulzer Bros.' present practice, but as no later plans
have been published, I do not feel at liberty to disclose the con-

Fig. 4. Sulzer Pump, Longitudinal Section.

struction further than will be described in a future place and in
another connection.

The extent and nature of the works at Winterthur I have de-
scribed in a recent paper before this Society. They are well known
all over the world and are again mentioned to say that the high-
pressure pumps were more than five years in evolution and that the
experiments made would have been impossible except by a firm
with such extensive and suitable resources.

Coming now to the principle or manner of operating, which

is no doubt the matter of most interest to the members, I have not

provided the mathematical data that has entered into and greatly

aided the construction of turbine pumps — to which class the Sulzer

7

78 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

type belongs. Computations, of which there is an abundant supply,
belong in the drafting office and workshop. They are among the
implements of construction, and a reference here to the work of
Rankine, Bodmer, Reynolds, Unwin and others would not only be
unintelligible without study, but would fail to illustrate so well as
words do what it is intended to convey.

To intelligently describe the work of Messrs. Sulzer Bros,
and that of the able engineer, whom they placed in charge of this
work, I will have to introduce a digression which will serve two
purposes — one, to explain the principles of the turbine type of
pumps, and the other, failure of computation to define the curves
and other operating features of turbine water wheels, to which, as
before explained, the pumps are closely related.

It is well known that at the Centennial Exposition of 1876
there was conducted at Philadelphia an extensive and careful trial
of turbine water wheels of the American centrifugal and Jonval
types. Thirty-five wheels by different makers were entered and
tested, giving efficiencies from 50 up to 87 per cent. These ex-
periments were conducted by Mr. Samuel Weber and are em-
bodied in a tabulated report now out of print, and, I may add, not
very accessible at the time of publication, because made for the
offices of the exposition only. I was present at some of these tests,
secured a copy and have it at the office, 22 California Street, where
it can be examined by anyone interested.

The tests were a surprise. The finely constructed Jonval
wheels by Mr. Emile Guyelin and the best wheels of the Fourney-
ron type were all excelled by one made "out in Jersey," eighteen
miles away, at Mount Holly, by Mr. Theodore H. Risdon. He was
a maker comparatively unknown, with a small shop in a Jersey
village, where he produced a plain-looking wheel that operated at
87 per cent, efficiency, the highest attained.

Other makers and even the Committee on Machinery were
not satisfied, and Mr. Risdon sent his wheel to Mr. James Emer-
son, at Holyoke, Mass., for further and more complete trials, where
the facilities were more extensive and reliable. This resulted in a
surprise for the inventor and for the scientific world. The wheels
gave out work up to more than 91 per cent. (91.3) of the theoret-
ical or complete efficiency, the highest result ever obtained and not
since equaled by any other turbine wheels of any type.

To explain this matter, turbine water wheels had previously
been made with buckets or vanes with reversed curves, as shown
in Fig. 5, taken from a Rodney Hunt wheel tested at the Centen-
nial. In this wheel, which is of the centripetal or American inward

ROTATIVE PUMPING. 79

discharge type, the receiving or diffusing vanes, as will be seen,
present a concave face to the impinging water, as indicated by
arrows, this being a principle of construction well settled by com-
plete mathematical data ; but Mr. Risdon reversed all this, inverted
the curves to present a convex face to the entering water, as shown
in Fig. 6, which is taken from his wheels tested at Philadelphia and
Holyoke in 1876. One of the complicated castings, which were
absolutely true, uniform in thickness and smooth, is shown in

Fig- 7-

I will mention, as a matter of interest to the members, that a
similar casting was made here in 1888 for the Folsom Water Power
Company under my supervision. Some of the wheels at Folsom
failed and telegrams from the East assured the company that such
a thing could not be done and it was perhaps the greatest "trick"
in casting that could be proposed. The insertion of the cores

Fig. 5. Rodney Hunt Turbine.

seemed impossible. They had all to go in at once, less than half an
inch at a time. The casting was made at the Occidental Foundry
in this city, and the wheels, made of cold blast iron, are the best
the company have in use at this time. It was only because the
manager was ill and by knowing what Mr. Risdon had done that I
had the temerity to enter upon this thing.

To show the connection between this matter and Messrs.
Sulzer Bros.' work on turbine pumps, they began their high pres-
sure pumps with the usual mathematical curves for turbine water
wheels, and by a course of evolution, mainly experimental, have,
without any knowledge of Risdon's work, changed the curves to his
system, or approximately so. A compliment that, if Mr. Risdon
were living, would have afforded him much pleasure.

I am not sure that other water wheel makers will confirm
what has been said of the Risdon wheels. It is a matter of per-
sonal knowledge and acquaintance with the inventor, but an ex-

80 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

animation of modern practice will show that, upon the expiration
of the patents on the Risdon wheel, his methods have been widely
adopted. Those made here for the Folsom Water Power Com-
pany were essentially of the Risdon type.

In turbine pumps, as distinguished from the Centrifugal class,
the rotation of the water is avoided as much as possible, the object
being, as in the case of water wheels, to have the water pass
through the pumps with as little deviation from its course as pos-
sible. It is obvious that rotation of the water is not in the true
course of its impulsion, but the resulting centrifugal force permits
of a cheap and widely varied construction with adaptation to
various uses where the narrow issues of a turbine would be objec-
tionable. With proper conservation of the tangential energy at-
tained by volute chambers and in other ways the efficiency rises to
about 65 per cent, for large centrifugal pumps.

A good example is furnished by the large pumps at Codigoro,
near Rome, in Italy, made by John and Henry Gwynne, of London,
in 1874, that have been tested annually by the government and
perform at about the efficiency named. There are in this plant
eight pumps of 5 feet bore that raise over 656,000,000 gallons a
day against a head of 12 feet, making a stream 103 feet wide and
4 feet deep flowing two miles an hour.

There are, of course, reports of much higher efficiency with
small pumps, but my confidence in these trials was a little shaken
some years ago when I sent the tabulated results of some centrif-
ugal pumps made here, to Mr. Charles Brown, then Chief Engineer
at the Sulzer Works, in Winterthur. He wrote a facetious reply,,
attributing the performance to the climate, as the quantities fur-
nished would not work out the same way in the region of the
Alps.

The final result to be attained by rotative pumps is now pre-
dictable, or, as the learned Mr. Gladstone would say, is "within
measurable distance of reasonable conjecture.'' In a letter just re-
ceived from Mr. William C. Brown, Chief Engineer of the Worth-
ington Company, he concedes the possibility of attaining an effi-
ciency of 80 per cent, with turbine pumps. He has himself done
a good deal of experimental work, especially with induction pumps,
in which the kinetic energy of the revolving water is applied in-
ductively in the manner of an injector or ejector.

The attainment of high efficiency is not, however, the only-
problem. The cost of construction and the adaptation to use are
equally to be considered. It is not to be a discovery, but an evolu-
tion. The experiments of Messrs. Sulzer Bros, and the recent ex-

ROTATIVE PUMPING. 81

periments in France by Rateau furnish a clue to what can be ex-
pected or is possible.

There is one feature in the evolution of all new machines
not often considered ; that is the time required to attain good work-
manship. This seems to be as inevitable as problems of design
and performance, and to require a like or longer period of years to
work out. This is illustrated by the construction of tangential
water wheels on this coast.

Twenty years ago these wheels had become a settled article
of manufacture here, but were made in a crude, unsymmetrical
form ; not for want of skill, because fine, well-fitted machines were
not an invention at that day any more than at this time. It is ques-
tionable, indeed, if manual skill was not better then, when fewer and
less efficient machine tools were employed, but the fact remains of
a gradual and slow progress in the quality of the manufacture.

Fig. 6. Theodore Risdon Turbine.

It is only within two years past that I have seen well-made
water wheels on this coast, well designed, well fitted and of good
material, corresponding to many other kinds of machines that had
been a constant example. This fault was, perhaps, not with the
makers so much as with the purchasers of water wheels, but it
amounts to the same thing in the end.

This impediment lies in the path of rotative pumps. For the
higher pressures their cost or value permits a high grade of
workmanship. The size and consequent cost of any fluid-impelling
machine is, as a rule, inversely as the velocity at which the fluid
passes through it, and the proportion between rotative and dis-
placement pumps is about as five or six to one, the velocity of the
water in the two cases having this relative flow through the im-
pelling parts, the pistons and vanes ; but it requires more than
this fact to produce well-made rotative pumps.

82 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

There is also the impediment that the greater share of the
pumps of the rotative type are, and will continue to be, for low
pressures and of cheap construction, good enough for their pur-
pose, and it will be difficult, not to say impossible, to set up and
maintain in the same works two standards of workmanship so
widely different. The interior surfaces, as Professor Sweet has
recently remarked in a letter to the author, presents a problem as
difficult as design.

It is not possible, in a common foundry producing general
castings whose unfinished surfaces are a matter of little concern,
to make complicated chambers that require true, smooth interior
surfaces that should, if possible, be finished smooth. I am pre-
pared to believe, after considerable observation, that much time,
care and experience will be required to produce castings of the
kind required for turbine pumps, and on which their performance
must in some degree depend.

The great speed at which turbine pumps are driven, indicated
in the table given, demands, also, very accurate turning, boring
and balancing; but these are more easily attained than perfect and
smooth castings.

Most people at this time look upon recent advances in rotative
pumps as a discovery or distinct invention that will transform
present practice in centrifugal pumps. This, I imagine, is not the
case at all ; centrifugal pumps will remain very much as now made
and the high pressure or turbine that competes with displacement
pumps will be a new class and a separate manufacture, although
the same manner of operating may be adapted for all machines to
pump reasonably clean fluids.

I feel warranted in saying this is the opinion of Messrs. Sulzer
Bros., who also make centrifugal pumps of all kinds and have for
many years past ; but the two types — high and low pressure or tur-
bine and centrifugal — are quite distinct, and are not even made in
the same works. The centrifugal pumps are made at Mannheim, in
Germany, and the turbines in Winterthur, in Switzerland.

In respect to pumping or compressing air or other elastic
fluids with free-running rotative machines, there is hope and
promise of considerable advance along the line indicated for
liquids. Mr. Brown, as will be remembered, stated in his letter
that Mr. Parsons was furnishing fans to deliver air at a pressure
of 25 pounds per inch. This is done, I imagine, with one-stage
machines, and is much more than is attained by centrifugal action
in common fans, but is not a limit, certainly, because a second stage,
beginning at 25 pounds pressure, could attain a second equal result.

ROTATIVE PUMPING. 83

These fans are driven by Parsons' steam turbine motors and
the compression of air is the reverse operation. The analogy be-
tween turbine water wheels and pumps holds here the same, sub-
ject, of course, to the differences between an elastic and inelastic
fluid, which, in so far as construction, is a very wide difference, be-
cause of the change of volume of the air as compression goes on.

Mr. George Manuel, C.E., of this city, has proposed the
saturation of air with water so its gravity would be increased to a
point when compression by centrifugal force would be possible at
comparatively low velocities. This seems an ingenious expedient,
but it is really a compromise with velocities, and, as the speed
factor is fast being eliminated at this day, it is possible that the high
velocities required for rotative air-compressing machines will be-
come attainable. It is a problem of the strength of material, and

Fig. 7. Running Element of Risdon Turbine.

this limit has been reached in steam and air-driven motors which
move at only one-half the velocity of efflux, approximately 24,000
feet per minute for ordinary pressures. It must, however, be re-
membered that by operating cumulatively, by stages, these veloci-
ties can be reduced to a point where strong material can be relied
upon. I mean for compressing machines, not for motors, because
in these latter the initial velocity is fixed and corresponds to ter-
minal or ultimate velocity in the compressing machines.

It will be reasonable to expect, in the next few years, con-
clusive experiments in rotative air-compressing machines, and, as
the dimensions or areas of the ducts will diminish with pressure, it
is possible that the economy of construction over positive or piston
machines will be greater than in the case of liquids. It will call
for a good deal of experiment as well as computation, but the re-
sult, if attainable, will repay the expense. Obviously, the makers

84 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

of such machinery in Europe have this matter in view. I mean
such firms as the Parsons Company, in England ; Rateau, also
Farcot, of Paris, all of whom have this matter in hand. I mean
higher pressures in free-running fans.

This paper had by circumstances to be prepared in two or
three days, instead of as many weeks, and is no doubt incomplete
in the same proportion. A portion of it has been done on a train
after I left San Francisco, and I trust to your indulgence and that
of the Secretary, who will have to digest and present a rough lot of
notes.

Note by the Author. — In reading the proofs of the present paper and
the discussion that followed I can see some omissions that can be added with
advantage.

The curve or shape of the vanes of a purely centrifugal pump is a matter
of no consequence, except as affecting the speed of revolution or of volume
which is, within certain limits, the same thing. Their function is to set the
water in revolution in the pump, and this they will do with like effect what-
ever their number or shape; but in the turbine type of rotative pumps the
form of the vanes becomes very important, as in the case of water wheels.
Their angle to the radius is a measure of their proper velocity, and the com-
ponent of the angular or vane velocity and that of flow is reduced to a
computable problem.

The resistance caused by rough surfaces is the same as in the case of con-
duits and pipes in which velocity is the controlling factor. The same rule
applies to bends and reversals, of course; but the interior of impellers being
subject to slow flow, generally less than that in the induction passages, does
not offer much resistance in centrifugal pumps.

One point of considerable importance I omitted from the paper because
of a want of information on my own part. I allude to what our old friend
Mr. Stevenson calls "kinetic stability." It is an obscure matter. A mass of
water in rapid revolution in one plane as in the case of the disc in a
gyroscope, can be moved laterally or discharged tangentially without op-
posing its tendency to remain in one plane, or its kinetic stability. The
measure of this force and its laws I am not able to refer to; but in my own
practice I avoid the diversion of the water from its plane of rotation, as in
the case of series pumps where the losses are cumulative.

It will be a matter of surprise, no doubt, to know that the losses due to
action by stages have been nearly eliminated. This has been recently shown
here by our able member, Prof. F. G. Hesse, of the University of California,
and the problem has engaged my own attention in a practical way for two
years past. Engineer Stevenson's propositions relating to the relations
between kinetic stability of bodies and the laws of gravity may have seemed
to us chimerical ; but in rotative pumps its place and functions are more
apparent.

New York, June 28, 1902.

ROTATIVE PUMPING. 85

DISCUSSION.

Mr. Grunsky. — In ordinary California practice what is the
efficiency of low-lift and high-lift centrifugal pumps, and what lift
has become customarily adopted here for compound pumps ?

Mr. Jackson. — In ordinary practice we expect from 60 to 70
per cent, efficiency in standard centrifugal pumps. The highest
efficiency, however, is obtained in special pumps under favorable
conditions. It is necessary that the pump shall work at its full
capacity in order to get the best results. These conditions being
satisfactory, we have records, from careful tests by experts, of 70
per cent, and over — even as high as 83 per cent. In my own prac-
tice and standard work we have installed single pumps for heads
from 100 to 150 feet, but we have also made series 2 and 3-
step pumps for 100 feet head, because we are called on to make
direct-connected plants to electric motors and steam engines, and
it is easier to adapt the pump to the speeds of the motor and en-
gine than to make special motors to suit the speeds of the pumps ;
and we are able to make this change of speed either by changing
the pump or runner or by adding more steps.

We have recently made a test with a 2-step series pump fur-
nished the Bay Counties Power Company. The plant was originally
made for a 400 feet lift in 4 steps ; but, after making the order, the
company changed their plans and installed only two pumps in
series working against a head of 200 to 240 feet lift. One of my
engineers, with the company's engineer, made the test. Both were
skilled men, and their record for the tests show a combined effi-
ciency of 73 per cent, and the pump 83 per cent, efficiency at a head
varying from 211 feet to 240 feet. The pumps were driven by belt
from a countershaft connected to the motor.

I have the records of another test, made by the Spreckels
Sugar Refinery Company, Mr. Waters, Superintendent, who made
the test for his own information before placing an order for an-
other pump like it. The record shows 68^ per cent, combined
efficiency and 76 per cent, for the pump only. The head was 68
feet. The pump was a special 18-inch pump, direct-connected to
electric motor, having capacity of 10,000 G. P. M., dirty water
from the sugar refinery.

Mr. Dickie. — For high heads, do you think it is advisable to
use the type of pumps we have shown here in the Sulzer pumps ?

Mr. Jackson. — Your question embarrasses me, because I do
not feel like criticising others. I will make this broad statement,
however, that in the construction of pumps it is not advisable, in
view of the item of cost, to try to make use of the kinetic energy

86 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

by introducing the diffusing veins or guides, as it appears to me
that they would be more of an obstruction to the water than other-
wise. Besides, I do not find it necessary to take the suction in on
opposite sides of the runner in order to balance it, but I confess
I have not made any experiments in this line. I prefer the shortest
road possible, as I am a manufacturer of pumps for the sake of
making money, and at the same time have doubts as to the utility
of these diffusing veins.

Mr. Dickie. — Don't you find that the character of the cast-
ings, the surface of metal, have a great deal to do with the effi-
ciency of pumps? I refer to the necessity of smooth surfaces.
They must have a very important bearing on the efficiency of the
pump.

Mr. Jackson. — Yes, I agree with you. We have made a
great many pumps with split runners for the purpose of polish-
ing the inside waterways, also making them of brass so that they
would not rust ; but this is done only in city water works, where
the efficiency is very important. For average use, I do not believe
it justifies the expense. In many cases the water carries so much
sand as to wear out the runners in a short time. I depend much
on the skillfully and carefully made core work. We frequently
take a great deal of pains in washing and smoothing them so there
will be no unevenness.

Mr. Dickie. — I think that, in pumps like these, this feature is
of great importance, the direction changing so often as the water
passes through the pump.

Mr. Jackson. — I fully agree with you on that point.

Professor Wing. — Mr. Jackson, how many different forms of
curves for different or various vanes of pumps have you adopted?

Mr. Jackson. — Only one form of curve. Always back, never
forward. To meet different conditions we turn the curve back
more or less. In that sense we make many different curves; but I
should like to hear what results have been obtained from veins
turned forward, as I cannot see any good results for turning them
forward and do not know of any builders adopting it. When I
first commenced the pump business, some twenty years ago, I made
tests with medium-sized pumps with seven different curve veins
from a straight to a very sloping curve. The curve affected the
efficiency but little, but affected the capacity materially. I have
never seen a formula in any work on centrifugal pumps that in-
cluded any other force than the centrifugal. Now, I think the
force of impact on the curved vein is more important than the
centrifugal force, because the discharge velocity of water at the

ROTATIVE PUMPING. 87

periphery is never that of the runner, but in some cases is little
more than the average velocity of the discharge in the pump's
scroll or pipes. This paper suggests many subjects that it would
be very difficult to talk about on the spur of the moment, especially
in the matter of compressing air by centrifugal runners. I think
a machine of that character would tend more to work for evolution
in mechanics than either the compound or centrifugal pumps.

Mr. Grunsky. — I would suggest, Mr. President, that there
might be some written discussions on this paper, and the Society
would certainly welcome a discussion in correspondence that could
be published in connection with this paper. It is certain that the
possibilities indicated by Mr. Richards mark this subject out as a
field of great promise. The coast here has certainly done its share
in overcoming the difficulties in connection with the construction
of this type of pumps, and it would be well to ascertain definitely
what the coast has done in this line. Mr. Jackson's utterances are
an indication of what we might hear from others.

Mr. Luther Wagoner. — The principles of compounding cen-
trifugal pumps and fans are well illustrated in the abstract of
Professor Rateau's experiments, made last year (Engineer, March
J. 14, 1902). Single, 5-wheel and 7-wheel pumps were tested, and
the results are given in numbers and also by diagrams. The nota-
tion employed is simple and independent of dimensions, and the
resulting diagrams are characteristic curves which co-relate the
mechanical, volumetric and manometric efficiencies. They will
repay careful study by those engaged in designs for improving such
pumps. The data mentioned above are sufficient to test the theory
of Professor Hesse, as expounded in a paper read before this
society last year;* and a careful mathematical discussion of it
would doubtless throw much light upon the principles of rational
design.

The experiments upon fans driven by steam-pelton wheels
show that it is possible to produce a compression of 1.5 atmospheres
by a single fan. Hence, if four or five wheels were compounded,
ii is possible that a light and cheap form of air compressor could
be made. Such a machine, directly driven by an electric motor,
would make the use of compressed air easy of application in many
places where it is now excluded by reason, either of the size of the
ordinary type or the length of pipe required. Cheapness and port-
ability would offset a considerably reduced efficiency.

*"The Efficiency of Compound Centrifugal Pumps," by Prof. F. G.
He?se, Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies, Vol. XXVII,
No. 6, December, 1901.

88 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Mr. L. J. Le Conte. — One of the many anomalies in applied
mechanics is the comparative lack of development in the theory of
the ordinary centrifugal pump as compared with the well-developed
theory of the turbine water wheels, which has been brought to
great perfection.

Broad general theory would lead one to suppose that the
centrifugal pump was simply a turbine wheel with reverse action ;
but this view, when applied to the ordinary centrifugal pump, leaves
imperfectly explained many well-known facts, and consequently
the apparent parallelism is not altogether clear.

For example, the turbine wheels have a high and practically
constant efficiency, whether the working head be 50 feet or 500
feet; whereas, with the ordinary centrifugal pump, for lifts over
75 feet the efficiency decreases much faster than the head, and
the height is soon reached where the pump has an efficiency so
low as to destroy its usefulness.

This fact must be due to some natural resistance in the centrif-
ugal, which does not exist in the turbine water wheel ; and the
question rises, what is the true cause of this abnormal prejudicial
friction, which develops as soon as the ordinary centrifugal pump
begins to run at higher speeds?

The writer is led to think that Professor Hesse, of the Uni-
versity of California, has settled many doubtful points by experi-
ment. He seems to show conclusively that the runner disc friction
ir- a powerful element in the problem, and one which has not been
properly considered by writers heretofore. He finds that the loss
of energy, per second, varies directly as the square of the diameter
and as the cube of the velocity of the periphery.

It is, therefore, clear that the ordinary centrifugal pump, as
now constructed, is poorly adapted to high lifts, because of the high
runner speed necessary to perform the work required. This im-
portant fact has led to the rational conclusion that for high lifts, a
proper system of compounding would reduce the speed of runner
for a given delivery, and, by this means, greatly improve the gen-
eral efficiency. Experience has proved this conclusion to be sound
and very important.

Other able writers maintain with much force that this loss in
efficiency at high speed is chiefly due to lack of complete arrange-
ments for utilizing the kinetic energy of the water as it leaves the
periphery of the runner. This view seems to be well substantiated
by experiments given in the table showing the results attained by
the -Sulzer compound turbine pumps, which is certainly very re-
markable and worthy of the highest praise.

ROTATIVE PUMPING. 89

Experiments have shown the great value of guide-vanes in
turbine pumps and their effect upon the efficiency. Mr. Parsons
found that a given pump, without guides, delivered 1500 gallons
per minute ; while the same pump, with guide-vanes, delivered 5000
gallons per minute, the same steam pressure being maintained.
Hence many engineers insist that the ordinary volute or centrifugal
pump, at high speed, does very ineffective work in converting into
pressure the kinetic energy of the water leaving the runner. There
seems to be much force in this contention, and this at once suggests
the propriety of introducing guide-vanes, similar to those of the
turbine pump.

It is more than likely, however, that both these views are
correct — within their own limits — and that the best results may
yet be obtained by giving proper weight to both in each particular
case. The whole past history of advancement in mechanical
knowledge is full of such examples.

Taking a broad view of the author's valuable paper, which is
pregnant with valuable suggestions, the most interesting feature is
the remarkable results obtained by compounding. These impor-
tant results open up a wide field of usefulness for centrifugal
pumps, which their most ardent advocates do not yet fully realize.

Mr. A. E. Chodzko. — The copy of Mr. John Richards's paper
en "Rotative Pumping" was duly received and read with great and
much-deserved interest. Mr. Richards's remarks about the steady
inroads made by direct impulse or so-called rotative upon recipro-
cating machinery, only confirm what he said and wrote on this
subject at a time when high-pressure machines of that type, either
motors or driven, were in their infancy, and attracted no attention
on this side of the Atlantic, except from a purely scientific stand-
point. I believe that Mr. Richards may rightly be considered the
pioneer of this class of machinery on the Pacific Coast.

But while a decided trend toward continuous action clearly
appears in the motors, whether steam, hydraulic or electric, the
progress has been less general with driving or operative machines ;
I mean, with those designed to generate pressure, and whose action
is, in principle, the reverse of that applied to the corresponding
motors. This statement does not include the electric motor, which
has made parallel strides with the dynamo. Hydraulic machinery,
which furnished the subject of the present paper, has of late years
made some most remarkable progress. Regarding what is said of
Mr. Theo. Risdon's innovation, in using convex instead of concave
diffusing vanes in his turbines, with such satisfactory results, refer-
ence may be made to the form of the so-called Berry buckets,

90 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

described by Mr. Richards some years ago in a pamphlet on "Tan-
gential water-wheels," which at that time elicited very bitter criti-
cism from some makers of tangential water-wheels of the concave
bucket type. The continuous compression of gases is apparently
the least advanced chapter of the series. It was after reading a
passage of a letter written by Mr. Chas. Brown, of Winterthur,
Switzerland, and communicated to me by Mr. Richards several
years ago, that I began to investigate the subject, first, analytically,
and, later on, in an experimental way. I have recently built and
operated some machinery designed for this purpose, and I firmly
believe in the possibility of raising gases to high pressures by the
direct-acting rotary process.

The practical requirements are many and peculiar, and the
problem is by no means easy to solve ; but, as one acquainted with
the operation of reciprocating compressors, I concur with the paper
under discussion, that the result will repay the labor.

PAVEMENTS IN GENERAL. 91

PAVEMENTS IN GENERAL.

By Charles E. P. Babcock, Member Engineers' Society of Western

New York.

[Read before the Society, February 4, 1902.*]

In the fall of 1896 Mr. March read before this Society a paper
on "Paving Brick and Brick Pavements," and his paper was pub-
lished in the transactions of the Engineers' Society. So completely
did Mr. March go into the subject that but little can be added.

Still later, Mr. Bardol, at that time Chief Engineer for the
Bureau of Engineering, in his report for 1898 brought together
much material on the subject of paving in general.

Many others have written on pavements and paving material,
and it seems as though but little is left of the subject but personal
experiences.

The following notes are gathered from observation and are in
no wise intended to commit the profession :

ASPHALT.

When a pavement fails, the most frequent explanation is that
the foundation is poor ; but this is not always the correct reason.
Nearly all of our asphalt is laid on a concrete base, a few streets
have a bituminous base, and in several the old paving stone was
used for a base and covered with the asphalt binder and surface.
The concrete is of natural cement, mixed 1, 2 and 5, laid 6 inches
thick. At Niagara Falls a 4-inch base of Portland cement concrete
is laid 1, 3 and 10. The objection to the natural cement concrete
is that it is apt to be porous, and, if water does reach it and remains
upon it, the concrete becomes soft. In streets where new surfaces
were laid, this softening was sometimes very marked, but in every
instance after we laid drain tile and left the concrete exposed to the
air and sun for a few days it hardened satisfactorily.

In Linwood Avenue, resurfaced in 1901 from Balcom to Del-
avan, in the first 200 feet north of Balcom a gravel was found in the
curb trenches. This was immediately under the concrete, which
was hard and dry; but further on we found clay, and the concrete
was soft and damp. Drain tile had not been used, but was provided
at the time of resurfacing. On Main Street near Ferry, resurfaced
in the same year, the concrete was very hard and smooth and looked
as though a glacier had worked over it. This part of Main Street

*Manuscript received August 8, 1902. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

92 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

had, under the concrete, a sand bed, which had been used when the
street was paved with stone. These two streets had asphalt pave-
ments of about the same age. Linwood Avenue was laid in 1885,
and Main Street in 1886. Both required a new surface at
about the same time. In Linwood Avenue the concrete was gener-
ally soft and damp, in Main Street it was hard and dry. These are
cited as instances where the failure of the pavement may not be due
to poor foundation. When the life of the asphalt is gone, the pave-
ment follows very closely. The life of the asphalt pavement is the
asphalt or bitumen which binds the small particles of sand and
stone dust. Without the asphalt we would have nothing but the
concrete base, with about 2 inches of sand and smaller material on
top. In the Macadam road the sand is the binder, but it has a depth
which the asphalt surface has not.

About 11 per cent, bitumen is expected in our pavements, and
there is no disposition to furnish less, as we require from the con-
tractor a guarantee for maintenance for ten years. This has been
the case since 1898.

But the streets that have disintegrated are those laid prior to
1898 and guaranteed for only five years. In some instances, early
disintegration was due to insufficient asphalt or inferior quality.
The streets were relaid at the expense of the contractor in most
cases — all but one. There were not many of this character; they
made the guarantee expensive.

Rolling in the surface is another- phase which generally leads
to breaking up, and it seems impossible to prevent such roll or
waves as are due to travel. It may be noticed that these occur on
each side of the street, but not in the middle third. Probably, if the
course of travel could be changed so that part of the time the line
of travel would be on the left of its direction and then back on the
right, changing about at intervals, there would be no waves in the
surface, or, at least, they would be at a minimum.

Prospect Avenue south of Porter, and Delaware Avenue south
of Virginia Street are good illustrations. Both streets were for-
merly paved with stone on a sand bed; the grade is steep enough,
and both were laid under favorable conditions and in a locality
where they would stand as witnesses to the skill of the contractor.

They were laid by the Barber Asphalt Company and were
smooth and really beautiful streets for a few years. Then the waves
appeared. A general disintegration has not yet begun, though con-
siderable repairs have been made.

The bicycle has done its share in making the waves. There is
a difference in traction between the rapidly-moving bicycle with

PAVEMENTS IN GENERAL. 93

rubber tires and an ordinary load on four steel tires. The auto-
mobile and its kind will probably demonstrate in a more marked
degree the action of the bicycle, both being propelled vehicles as
distinguished from the wagon which is drawn. It seems certain
that this rapid propulsion, always on the right side of the street,
must, on hot days, push the softened pavement out of position, but
it is noticed only when the travel is very great. Other pavements
might show in a different way the action of these propelled vehicles,
but perhaps not so early as they would the wear and grind of the
horses' shoes and the steel tires. But the very nature of our asphalt
pavements make them susceptible to this action, which may not be
so apparent in the rock asphalt. In any event, the comfort of the
modern Vehicle should reconcile the user to the cost of maintaining
the smoother pavements. While easy to clean, they also make the
presence of dirt more noticeable and its removal more of a necessity.
In their own sphere they have done more missionary work for clean-
liness than the fiercest crusade of the Health Officer.

The action of frost does not seem to have heaved our pave-
ments to any serious degree, because so little moisture accumulates
under them. Some exceptions may be found on streets where
asphalt is laid flush with rails of street car tracks and where the rails
are not on a permanent base.

Expansion should not hurt the asphalt in this climate, but hot
weather renders the surface susceptible to the action of travel ; and,
where petroleum residuum is used as a flux, the hot weather cannot
improve the surface.

Severe cold has caused cracks, but it is not certain that these
do much harm in a comparatively new pavement, so long as water
does not work in. The cracks seem to close up and adhere in warm
weather. Steam rollers are used in making the surface, the idea
being that immediate and great compression is required. Much
experience would tend to show that a less initial compression would
give a smoother surface. It can not be said that the steam rollers
arc entirely unsatisfactory, for some very fine surfaces have been
obtained with them and for finishing they are indispensable ; but it
often happens that the finished surface is not even. This is due to
either a movement in the foundation, a heavy, working engine, a
careless steam engineer or the condition of the asphalt at the time of
rolling and sometimes the weather. Different kinds of asphalt re-
quire different treatment in rolling as in other handling. It has
been the experience in Buffalo that when the pavement is rough
at time of completion ; that is, when it shows small waves, subse-
quent travel does not eliminate them, though statements to the con-

8

94 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

trary are made. But cuts in the new pavement from horse shoes
and wagon wheels generally disappear under travel in warm
weather. It is not possible to say that the asphalt surface is in-
variably 2 inches thick, as required by the Buffalo specifications,
but we have found from experiment that a square yard of riewly-
iaid pavement 2 inches thick should weigh from 180 to 195 or 200
pounds, according to the mixture ; and we know the weight of a
load of the surface and can spread this load to cover the area it
should.

Asphalt from the Island of Trinidad, when refined, analyses
for about 56 per cent, of bitumen, Bermudez for about 97 per cent.,
Alcatraz for about 98 per cent., Obispo for 99 per cent, and Cuban
asphalt 70 per cent.

Reports of investigations sometimes tend to show that one
asphalt is superior to another because of its higher percentage of
bitumen after refining, but this has not been borne out by facts.
From a commercial point of view, one may be more profitable to
handle than another. The quality of the bitumen must be con-
sidered, and not merely quantity derived after refining. Its natural
limpidity is of high value, but if this is obtained by artificial means
the result is not always the best. Trinidad Lake and the so-called
Trinidad Land asphalt analyze for about the same amount of
bitumen. We have the report of a chemist on some of the land
asphalt in which he expressed the opinion that it was suitable for
paving. Streets laid with it were soon in bad condition and were
resurfaced with lake asphalt at the expense of the contractor.

In treating some of the asphalts for a paving matrix, petroleum
residuum is used as a flux. Trinidad and Bermudez are prepared
in this way. The use of this mixture affords a subject for con-
siderable thought. To the student of mechanical or physical forces
it would seem that the introduction of anything of an oily nature
would not give the best results. We use the asphalt solely in order
to bind together the small particles of sand and stone dust; but,
to obtain a certain and uniform softness, we use oil as a flux. The
percentage of oil is, of course, very small, but its presence at all is
undesirable. The petroleum residuum probably contains some
petrolene. At any rate, its addition to the refined Trinidad asphalt
increases the percentage of bitumen from 56 to about 62, and there
seems to be no chemical reason why it should not be used as a flux ;
but, from a mechanical standpoint, the introduction of anything
that may act as a lubricant is ill advised.

When the first asphalt was laid here by Abbott, he used a built-
up base of broken stone — not cement concrete — and in the surface

PAVEMENTS IN GENERAL. 95

he used Trinidad asphalt, with wax tailings for a flux. The sur-
face also contained a small gravel and broken stone, mixed in with
the sand. One of his pavements failed after about 14 years
use and a new surface was laid; but the other pavements laid by
him have proved excellent. His explanation of the failure was that
the pavement was deficient in quantity of asphalt. His use of small
stone or gravel and sand is interesting when compared with the
practice under our ten-year guaranty, in which sand is the com-
ponent of largest dimension and a very fine stone dust the smallest,
except possibly the carbonate of lime.

A California maltha is used as a flux for the Alcatraz asphalt.
It contains a larger percentage of bitumen than the petroleum
residuum and seems better suited for a flux; but our experience
with the Alcatraz has not been of sufficient duration to fix its value
as a pavement. The Alcatraz and other California asphalts are re-
fined by cutting with a light hydro-carbon, such as naphtha. They
are then carried over evaporators and different grades obtained.
Whether this is preferable to the heating or distilling process of
separation I cannot say, but I prefer the latter.

Much expensive chemical analysis has given knowledge as to
the components of the asphalt and has recorded their names and
percentages. A similar professional consideration of the me-
chanical combination of the components would have given us as
good an asphalt as it is possible to mix, but this consideration is
not always given. The mass should be one with minimum voids,
one which will lay smoothly and retain its surface, whose particles
will not roll on each other and which will resist the decomposing
action of refuse and water and wear well.

The imported limestone or rock asphalt makes a very service-
able pavement ; yet a short time ago an argument made in court
was to the effect that the action of water on limestone was erosive
and that, therefore, an asphalt with limestone in it was not so suit-
able as a mixture of refined asphalt and selected sand. This argu-
ment was not made against the imported rock asphalt. The pave-
ments as now laid here ; that is, the refined asphalts, contain more or
less pulverized limestone, because that is the stone we have in our
quarries. The advantage the natural rock pavement has over the
made-up asphalt seems to be that nature has thoroughly filled (or,
we might say, saturated) the rock with the bitumen in the natural
rock, and there must be an absorption of bitumen and an adhesion
that is difficult to obtain by mechanical process. The advantage
of the latter is a commercial one. It enables us to use a material
which, by proper handling, may be well enough suited for its
purpose.

96 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES..

Criticism of our pavements should, be tempered by a thoughtful
consideration of the circumstances under which they were laid. The
cost of paving is borne by abutting property. When asphalt was
first laid here it was so much better than the common stone or
wooden blocks that there was a demand for it at a greater cost.
The asphalt company, having its patents, furnished its specifications
for mixing and laying, with a maintenance guarantee for five years.
These specifications have not been materially changed, except as to
amount of bitumen used and period of guaranty. Contracts were
awarded on representations of a majority of persons liable to pay
for the improvement. In many instances the pavement was laid in
front of vacant property, which it improved and made marketable,
so that often the owner could more than afford to pay for the pave-
ment. This was done without the special advice of the engineer,
whose office seemed to be to superintend the work which someone
had asked for under certain specifications. Most of this pavement
lasted five years, — the period of guarantee. If not, it was replaced
by the contractor. But, after ten or twelve years, when it began to
wear out and the repairs paid for by the city amounted to several
thousand dollars a year, came criticism and some denunciation.
How far the engineer could have shaped things, it is not easy to say.
Without facilities for laboratory experiment, and restricted in
handling patented pavement, there was not much for him to do in
the way of initiation. If decision as to kind of pavement to be laid
were left to the engineer or to someone else competent to recom-
mend, there would be an occasional opportunity for improvement
without waiting for the willingness or profit of the contractor.
Under the conditions as they exist in Buffalo, the best safeguard
against a poor pavement is the ten-year maintenance guarantee.
Air March, in his paper, quotes Mr. Male, a French authority in
asphalt pavement, as saying that the cracks in the pavement are
largely due to the use of oils for fluxing, and he deprecates the use
of petroleum residuum.

Little, if any, of the kinds of asphalt used in this country is
used abroad. Most of the foreign asphalt pavements are laid with
the natural rock asphalt.

STONE.

The wear on our better class or block stone pavement has been
comparatively light. It has been in use since 1887. Most of it
wa< laid on a well-settled bottom, with concrete base, replacing old
stone pavement laid in sand. The Medina sand stone, which we use,
has a tendency to wear off smooth, not slippery, as granite does,
nor is it so durable as the granite. The cost of the latter in Buffalo
would be prohibitive. The Engineer's office has attempted to obtain

PAVEMENTS IN GENERAL. 97

a better grading of size than is furnished; that is, to have blocks
nearer the same area on top ; but we are more or less guided by the
quarrying interests. Of course, the quarry will furnish any sizes
called for, but the cost must be considered. Just at present the
blocks run a little too large. For a while they came very close to our
specifications. In fact, the specifications were the result of investi-
gation from our own and the quarrymen's standpoints.

In some of the stone-paved streets the joints were poured with
either asphalt or paving pitch, hot gravel having been swept into the
joints. This is satisfactory. The joints must be sufficiently wide;
and gravel, not sand, must be used. Asphalt, heated to its extreme,
will not run into a sand joint. The largest gravel the space will
contain should be used. Of late, we have laid the stone blocks as
close together as possible and used a good Portland cement grout
for filling the joints. brick

New kinds of brick are coming into the market. In fact, the
kinds are so numerous that we now specify the round or square-
edged, fire-clay or shale, meeting certain requirements as to absorp-
tion, abrasion, etc. We now pour all the joints with cement grout,
leaving an occasional expansion joint of sand. Tar is not satis-
factory. We have never used asphalt for this purpose. Brick is
the most difficult pavement to repair neatly. It seems impossible
to relay brick to the same surface as the undisturbed contiguous
brick. To date, our brick pavements have required but slight' re-
pair. The first laid under contract was in 1891.

CONCRETE.

In mixing concrete, the proportions of the components should
always be worked out according to their sizes or voids. In experi-
menting on our street work, we have found that the bag of cement
such as we use, about 2.25 cubic feet, with sand and gravel and
broken stone, laid about 3.12 square yards of concrete 6 inches
thick, whereas the use of sand in place of the gravel made about
2.73 square yards, or about 90 per cent, of what was obtained in the
first mixture. Concrete, as laid in our paving work, with good
organization and with the materials on the street, can be mixed and
deposited at the rate of about one-half cubic yard per hour per man.

As to the value of the concrete base for pavement, nothing need
be said to the engineer. But, if in our new streets we were content
to lay a stone base, in fact, a good macadam, wait until it has worn
down to its bearings and then lay on this base a suitable surface,
there would be little complaint as to durability.

We have, now, over 337 miles of paved streets, or 6,384,000
square yards, the cost of which has been about $20,000,000, or over
$50 per capita.

uwhMD

Kditors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.

As

SOCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Organized 1881.

S~h

Vol. XXIX. SEPTEMBER, 1902

This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or for
the statements or opinions of members of the Societies.

THE HENNEBIQUE SYSTEM OF ARMORED CONCRETE
CONSTRUCTION.

By Leopold Mensch, Member Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland.

[Read before the Club, June 10, 1902.*]

Iron and steel have been used in the construction of railroads,
steamships, bridges, office buildings of stupendous heights, factories,
exhibition palaces, markets, theaters, apartment houses, grain ele-
vators, water towers, stand pipes, smoke stacks, and water mains of
hundreds of miles in length. Even churches have been built entirely
of iron. It is due to the triumph of iron and steel engineering in
the latter half of the past century that our profession is recognized
to-day as one of the most honored of human vocations.

I ask, is steel really the most suitable material for all these
purposes? Is the engineer (who is defined as a person employing
the resources of nature with the least amount of human labor to the
benefit of mankind) right in using steel only as the skeleton of his
constructions ? The universal reign of steel is irrevocably past, and
we are returning with rapid strides to the old, time-honored
masonry construction.

Xot to brick or stone work, but to an artificial stone, i. e., —
concrete, strengthened by steel. This composite material is vari-
ously called concrete-steel, ferro-concrete, or armored concrete.
Concrete itself is not a new building material. Vitruvius Polio, the
famous writer on architecture and engineering, who lived in the
beginning of our era, describes it as one of the most valuable build-
ing materials, and as one which, centuries before his time, had been
used for foundations, for walls and in all structures where great
strength was required. The great dome of the Pantheon, in Rome.

^Manuscript received July 1, 1902. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
10

ioo ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

142 feet in diameter was built entirely of concrete, and it stands to-
day, having braved the destructive influences of nature for nearly
2000 years. In the House of the Vestals, an upper floor of 20 feet
span was a simple slab of concrete 14 inches thick. Even in Mexico
there are buildings, the remains of an unknown civilization, which
have concrete foundations, and in the Italian colonies of Magna
Grsecia, there is evidence that the ancient Greeks knew what con-
crete was and how to apply it. The walls of Reading Abbey, in
England, were apparently faced with square blocks of stone on both
sides, and the core and backing were made of concrete, with the
result that, although the stone appears to have perished, the con-
crete, which was intended to play a secondary part, still remains.
At Badajos, in Spain, the walls of the castle and fortifications
still show the marks of the boards used for the molds. In all parts
of the world there is evidence that concrete, as a building material,
was well known and largely used many hundred years since, long

Fig. 1.

before the general introduction of steel and other artificial sub-
stances, now recognized as legitimate materials of construction. As
Portland cement was unknown eighty years ago, all the concretes
named had lime for their cementitious constituent ; but the excellent
quality of the lime, and the apparent care and knowledge applied in
the selection of the component parts, resulted in the construction of
buildings superior in strength and durability to any of modern erec-
tion, skyscrapers not excepted.

The use of concrete alone, however, is confined to that limited
number of cases where economy in time and labor does not enter
into consideration. This is because concrete has a comparatively
high compressive strength, but a very low tenacity, thus forming,
like cast iron, a very uneconomical material of construction. To
illustrate this point further, let us consider a concrete beam, AB
(Fig. 1), of rectangular section, supported at the ends and loaded.
The beam will deflect, the upper fibers will be in compression, the
lower fibers in tension. The greatest stresses occur in the extreme
fibers at top and bottom and are of the same magnitude. The
nearer we come to the center of the beam, called the neutral axis,

HEXNEBIQUE SYSTEM OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, ioi

the less will be the stresses. Their distribution in any section of the
beam is graphically represented by the diagram a a' n b b'. The
greater the load the greater will be the extreme fiber stresses, and,
in increasing the load, we reach a point where the ultimate tensile
strength is reached and the beam fails. It fails because the lower
part of it, which is in tension, is destroyed, while the upper part is
strained to only from one-tenth to one-twentieth of its ultimate
strength, concrete having a tenacity of about 200 to 250 pounds per
square inch and a compressive strength of 2000 to 3000 pounds per
square inch after two months, which might increase to 5000 pounds
after two years. This unfortunate property of concrete can easily
be remedied by embedding steel rods where tensile stresses might
occur. This expedient, however, is not new. Monier, a Frenchman,
as early as 1876, took out his first patent on concrete-steel construc-
tion, and thousands of water tanks, sewers and water mains were
built of concrete armored by wire nets, and a new field and new

Fig. 2.

possibilities were opened, which will soon revolutionize our build-
ing practice.

All rational combinations of concrete and steel are based on
the following facts :

First. The coefficients of expansion of concrete and of steel
are practically equal, as many scientists of Europe and America
have demonstrated.

Second. A perfect bond exists between concrete and steel.
Their adherence has been determined by different authorities, and
found to be 570 to 650 pounds per square inch.*

*It may be interesting to know what the length of an iron rod, embedded
in concrete, must be in order that it may fail by tension before rupturing the
bond. If we assume the ultimate tensile strength of iron to be 57,000 pounds
per square inch, we have the force required for breaking the rod bodily =

7T d2

57,000 — — - ; for breaking the bond the force required = ldir X 570;

1 d v being = area of surface in contact. Equating these two expressions,
we get, as minimum length, 1 = 25 d. Thus, if a bar of round iron has a
length of more than twenty-five times its diameter, it will break before it
can separate from the concrete.

102 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Third. The concrete fully protects the iron against corro-
sion.*

We know, besides, that iron nails were preserved by the mortar
of Roman walls for 2000 years, and in view of this fact can we
doubt the preservative efficiency of our first-class Portland cements ?

Fourth. The ratio of the Moduli of Elasticity of concrete and
steel is as 1 115. In other words, if two fibers of concrete and of
steel, respectively, of the same length, be subjected to equal elonga-
tions, their stresses will be in the ratio of 1 :i5.

Let us now revert to our concrete beam, imbed steel rods in the
lower part and apply our loads. The beam will again deflect, the
upper fibers will be in compression and the lower fibers in tension ;
but the diagram of stresses, which in Fig. 1 was represented by
a a' n b b' is now distorted by the new stresses which are produced
in the steel rods, forming the diagram a a' n b b' c' c" ( Fig. 2) . We
have learned that a perfect bond exists between the steel and con-

Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

crete, therefore it is evident that the extension of each steel fiber is
the same as that of the adjacent concrete fiber. But, by the fact
stated above, this involves stresses in the steel fibers fifteen times as
great as in the adjacent concrete fibers, since these are necessarily

*An experience of 2500 years has proved that concrete is absolutely in-
destructible, that it resists the disintegrating effects of air, moisture, water
and steam, even of sea water and of sulphuric and chlorine gases ; and that,
if the metal embedded in concrete were not thus protected by the latter, con-
crete-steel structures would be impracticable. Happily, however, wherever
such work has been taken up after years of exposure, the steel has been
found free from any trace of oxidation. To remove any possible doubt,
Mr. Hennebique resolved to urge upon the city authorities of Grenoble,
France, an official investigation into the preservation of steel in concrete.
In that city a water main, constructed on the Monier system, of 12 inches
internal diameter and \Y% inches thickness, laid in 1886, had borne, for fifteen
years, a head of 75 feet of water. The sections of the pipe were 6 feet 3
inches long, and the iron skeleton was formed by 30 longitudinal rods, %■
inch in diameter, one interior spiral of j* inch wire and one exterior spiral
of % inch wire.

On the 2d of February, 1901, 16 feet of this conduit were taken up. The
tubes were found in a perfect state of preservation ; the steel did not show the
slightest trace of oxidation ; the adhesion of the steel to the concrete, despite
the slight thickness of the pipes, was such that it could be separated only by
heavy blows from a sledge hammer.

HEXXEBIQUE SYSTEM OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 103

at the same distance from the neutral axis. This has the same
effect, on the moment of resistance of the beam, as if we had added
to the lower part of the section an area of concrete having fifteen
times the area of cross section of the steel rods (Fig. 3). This will
at once be recognized as the section which, in rational design, is
given to cast-iron girders ; but the great difference is that, in our
case, we get a very considerable increase in strength of section with
only a very small increase in weight. The more steel we imbed, the
less will be the tensile stresses in the concrete itself and the greater
will be the part of the tensile stresses taken by the steel. In fact, in
all rational designs the resistance of the concrete to tension is
entirely disregarded.

But we have to guard against an excess of steel. If the ideal
T section becomes excessively wide at the base, the relatively small
compression flange, formed by the concrete, has to take too large a
compressive stress, and might fail by crushing. We thus see that,

ii I !:

_£J

C

Fig. 5.

in a given section, there can be but one proper proportion of steel to
concrete. In building practice there are many cases where the
depth of the beam is limited, and where a very high capacity re-
quired. In such cases we can further strengthen the beam by im-
bedding steel rods in the upper part of the section, as well as in the
lower part. This gives an ideal T section as shown in Fig. 4. It
is clear that we require a less area of steel in the upper than in the
lower part, and we must maintain the proper ratio between the
moments of resistance of the top and bottom flanges. Otherwise
waste of material, or failure of the beam, will follow.

As in any steel and wooden beam we have also to take care of
the shearing stresses. The first engineer who grasped the impor-
tance of this consideration in connection with the strength of con-
crete beams was Mr. Francois Hennebique, and his scientific de-
signs have made him the most successful concrete steel builder in
Europe.

The girder (Fig. 5) which he has patented in all civilized
countries of the world, can hardly be improved. Its principle con-
sists in imbedding pairs of rods, in vertical planes, in the beam, one

104

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

being always straight the other bent upward near the supports, both
being united by a number of bent straps or stirrups.

The concrete, in connection with the steel rods, may be re-
garded as forming queen post trusses, as shown separately in Figs.
6 and 7 ; the place of the wood being taken by the concrete, and that
of the verticals by the stirrups. These stirrups take up also the
horizontal shearing stresses, which are greatest at the ends near the
neutral axis, and for this reason they are placed close together near
the supports (Fig. 5).

Fig. 6.

§

Fig. 7.

a
c

b
d

Fig. 8.

Numerous tests, made by Mr. Hennebique, with girders with
2nd without stirrups, showed the great gain in strength which re-
sults from their use.

It might be objected that we rely on the bond of the steel with
the concrete ; and that yet, in the most vital part of the beam,
namely in the center, the concrete of the bottom flange will first fail
when the beam is overloaded, and destroy the bond. This will
surely happen, pieces of concrete may even drop out and lay the
rods bare ; but that is also where the real truss action of this com-
bination commences, in which case we need the bond in the center
no longer; the steel rods will be strained in a much higher degree
than before, the beam will very appreciably deflect, and at last fail-
ure of the beam will follow, either through breaking of the rods,
through crushing of the concrete, or through simultaneous failure

HENNEBIQUE SYSTEM OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 105

of both. But the dropping out of pieces of concrete long before
half of the ultimate capacity of the beam is reached gives a timely
warning, such as occurs neither in steel nor in wooden beams.

The theory of concrete-metal construction is at least as well
known as that of steel beams ; in fact, the successful builder in con-
crete-steel will guarantee his work with greater confidence than can
the structural steel works.

But economy and safety are attained only through scientific
design, and the greatest calamities would follow if such structures
were designed and built by so-called practical men.

One of the earliest applications of concrete-metal was in
the construction of fireproof floors. Let us assume that we have
to cover an area, abed (Fig. 8), by a fireproof floor. In

' e " \. ■ -r ' d

l£

Fig. 9.

u^y

Fig. 10.

I

11

m*M

Fig. 11.

simple concrete floors we use steel beams, spaced 4 feet apart,
and the whole is filled with concrete, as shown in section in
Fig. 9. It was soon found that these floors could carry a slightly
greater load than that indicated for the beams alone, and that
a more economical floor could be constructed by using T sec-
tions instead of I beams and placing them lower (Fig. 10). A
similar floor was used in the building of the Citizens Savings
and Loan Association in this city, only that T sections of special
shapes were employed. But Mr. Hennebique went farther. He
substituted rods (Fig. 11) for the T's, a shape which is very easily
procured in the market, and, especially to-day, at nearly half the
cost of the T's. The girders, corresponding to the steel beams in
Fig. 9, are substantially the same as shown in Fig. 5. The slabs,
between the girders, form a continuous beam, therefore tensile

io6 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

stresses are set up also above the girders. These are taken care of
Ly horizontal rods at the bottoms of the slabs, and by bent rods
approaching the top fibers over the supports. The whole floor
forms the compression flange of this composite girder, while the
rods form the tension flange ; and the result is that we get a moment
of inertia 80 to 100 times greater than that of ordinary steel beams ;
and, as the ratio of the moduli of elasticity is only 1:15 we see
that the Hennebique floors must be at least six times stiffer than
steel girder floors.

In this connection I may cite a very interesting experiment,
made by the Engineering Department of the Orleans Railroad at
their Austerlitz station in Paris. A Hennebique floor, figured to
carry a machinery load of 280 pounds per square foot, of a span of
about 16 feet, was subjected, for a length of 17 feet, to a load of 420
pounds per square foot. The maximum deflection was -g inch, with-
out any permanent set. In order to compare the resistance of this
floor to shocks, with that of steel girder floors, this floor and a floor
cf the Quay d'Orsay station, built for the same purpose and of the
same span, but consisting of I beams and brick arches, were sub-
jected to the blows of falling weights. The dead weight of the
Hennebique floor was 60 pounds per square foot, that of the other
96 pounds per square foot. A weight of no pounds, falling from a
height of 6^ feet, produced, in the steel and brick floor, vibrations of
an amplitude of ^VjfV lasting two seconds, while a weight of 220
pounds, falling from a height of 13 feet on the Hennebique floor,
caused a maximum vibration of only -fa of an inch, lasting 4 of a
second. Thus, twice the weight falling from twice the height,
caused only one-fifth of the deflection, with vibrations lasting only a
third of the time.

This is of enormous advantage in bridges, and especially in fac-
tory buildings, not only because the lives of such structures are
threatened by vibration, but also because freedom from vibration
preserves the tools and makes better work possible.

The high price of steel, the long delays in deliveries of steel
structural work, the difficulty (and often the impossibility) of secur-
ing economical sections, suggest the use of concrete-steel in the
construction of wholly fireproof buildings.

Whether office buildings, apartment houses, residences or fac-
tories are to be built by the Hennebique system, the skeleton
principle of construction is strictly followed.

If concrete walls are used they are strengthened by rods, and
rarely exceed six inches in thickness. The columns consist of four
or more rods, connected at short intervals bv flat bars, and the

HEXNEBIQUE SYSTEM OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 107

whole is imbedded in concrete. The rods (Fig. 12) are placed in
the periphery only, thus giving the maximum radius of gyration
and being in position to take any tensile stresses. The connections
between the columns and the girders and beams are effected by
ample brackets and are monolithic ; and, as the floors are six times
stiffer than steel girder floors, the stresses, due to eccentric load-
ing, are nearly one-sixth as great.* The columns can be so de-
signed as to suit any exigency. Recesses can be formed for gas
and water pipes and electric wiring ; brackets can be provided for

Fig. 12. General View of Columns, Girders, Beams and Floors.

transmission shafts, electric traveling cranes, etc. . . . The
diameters of these columns are only from 1 to 2 inches greater than
those of steel columns without fire proofing; but for theaters and
other architectural purposes they allow of a considerable reduction
in width.

Hennebique columns were subjected to a severe test by the
authorities of the last Paris exhibition. The Palais de Costume was
entirely built on the Hennebique system. The columns were 20

*See Handbook written by the author for Homan & Rodgers, London.

io8

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

feet apart, and of such small diameter that the engineers doubted
their resistance to eccentric loading, and applied a load of sand
weighing 150 tons, or one and a half times the load for which the
columns were calculated, in alternate panels of two stories (Fig.
13). The deflection of the columns could hardly be measured, and
was a minute fraction of -^ of an inch.

A notable economy is obtained in the use of armored concrete
for foundations. The ordinary methods, heretofore in use, can be
described by saying that enormous masses of either concrete or
sreel beams were buried in the ground, making expensive excava-
tions necessary, and cutting into the hard crust which generally
overlies the yielding stratum. Hennebique's column footings con-
sist of a layer of concrete a few inches thick, in which are im-
bedded steel rods in the two main directions (Fig. 14), and a

O- '-o'-'—x-SO-' '-■©-"—>

Fig. 13.

monolithic truncated pyramid connected, with the column they sup-
port. Such a footing may be considered a girder affected by
uniformly distributed loads in an upward direction, and a nearly
concentrated load acting downward in the center. These forces
tend to bend the pyramid in the two main directions, and this
tendency is effectually resisted by the concrete in compression and
by the rods in tension. The largest of these footings thus far con-
structed has a side of about 70 feet.

Where pile driving is necessary concrete-steel piles are driven
into the ground, and the columns are directly connected with them.

These piles are formed in molds, and the concrete is
strengthened by steel rods of suitable dimensions, connected at
short intervals by stirrups (Fig. 15). At its lower end the pile is
armed with a pointed shoe with side plates, the ends of which are
turned in, so as to lock the pile securely in place. The head of
the pile is of less width than the body, allowing a clearance between
the heads of two adjacent piles. In order to insure uniform blows

HENNEBIQUE SYSTEM OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 109

irom the ram in the process of driving, and to prevent injury to the
pile, the head is protected by a cap of cast steel and closed at its
lower end by a clay ring held by a plug of hemp or spun yarn.
This cap is previously filled with dried sand. A very regular cush-
ion is thus formed on and all around the head, which cushion
distributes the pressure in an absolutely uniform manner. This
arrangement renders it permissible for the iron rods to project
beyond the head of the pile, so that, in case of need, they may be
connected with other parts of the structure or bent into hooks for
convenience of handling.

Fig. 14. Column Footing.

The sheet piles (Fig. 16) are strengthened by four rods, con-
nected by wire clamps, which, in their turn, are cross-tied by flat
irons. At the lower end we have again a shoe, and the head is
again of less width than the body, allowing room for the insertion
of a cap. About 6 inches above the shoe on the longer of the
narrow sides a projection, m, is formed, while the remainder of
both narrow sides is grooved for the entire length. The projec-
tion on one of the piles slips into the groove of the next pile in
ramming.

A special arrangement is provided to insure the desired direc-
tion of driving. An iron pipe which fits the groove of the sheet
pile last driven, and that of the pile which is being driven, con-

no ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

nects, by means of a hose, with a pump or water tank. This pipe
serves also as guide, and the water forces out the sand which might
jam the grooves, thus facilitating the driving of the pile. Once
the pile is down to the desired depth, the pipe is withdrawn, cement

<•

I-'

a> •'•■'•■ r — Sa

□ o

h

Fig. 15.

is run between the grooves and a perfect water-tight joint and wall

are established. Tongue and groove joints are also sometimes used.

These piles are somewhat more expensive than wooden ones,

but are practically indestructible and of enormous resistance to

HEXXEBIQUE SYSTEM OF COXCRETE COXSTRUCTIOX. in

bending. They are affected neither by the rise and fall of ground
water nor by sea water, nor can they be attacked by teredos, which,
in certain parts of the globe, destroy wooden piles in a very short

Fig. i 6.

time. What an ideal member in the construction of sea walls,
breakwaters, recreation piers, etc. . . . !

I have now described in particular the different elements which
compose a building designed on the Hennebique system ; but it yet

ii2 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

remains to prove their resistance to fire. Of the many tests which
Mr. Hennebique and various European governments have made on
buildings of his design, I will describe the fire test of a two-story
pavilion at the Exhibition of Ghent, in Belgium, in 1899. This
pavilion, measuring 20 x 15 feet, was built entirely of ferro-con-
crete, and the windows and doors were provided with Siemens wire
glass. In all, two tests were made. In the first test the second
floor was loaded with 300 pounds per square foot, or one and a half
times the load for which it was designed, and a deflection of ^nW
of the span was produced. On the 9th of September the lower
room was filled with about 220 cubic feet of wood and coal. This
material was sprinkled with petroleum and set on fire. The con-
flagration lasted one hour, and produced a temperature of about
13000 F. The walls were red hot on the inside; yet, notwith-
standing that their thickness was only 4% inches, the hand could
easily be held on the outside without experiencing any discomfort.

The temperature of the second floor increased only 40, which
means that no mercantile product whatsoever would have suffered
damage. The deflection of the floor increased to T9F of an inch,
but two hours after the extinction of the fire was diminished by
half an inch, so that under a very heavy load the permanent deflec-
tion resulting from the fire was scarcely perceptible.

In order to prove that an armored concrete floor, which had
been subjected to fire, was still capable of bearing the same loads as
before, Mr. Hennebique made a new test on the 28th of September ;
this time loading the floor with 400 pounds per square foot, or
double its intended load. When the 300 pounds mark was reached
the deflection was found to be precisely the same as before the first
test. At 400 pounds per square foot the deflection was only $ of an
inch.

The lower room was completely filled with wood and coal, the
upper room partially filled with the same materials, and the roof
was loaded with 200 pounds per square foot. At six minutes past
four the fire was lighted on both piles and lasted until half past six.
The fire played so fiercely against the sides and ceiling that the
plastering of the latter was calcined, and the wire glass of the
windows and doors melted.

The building was momentarily forced out of shape (ex-
panded), but showed no cracks and only very fine fissures, which
in no case let the hot air escape. Again the contact of the hand
with the outside of the walls could easily be endured. The deflec-
tion of the second floor reached a maximum of § inch at 20 minutes
to six ; after this time no further increase could be observed.

HENNEBIQUE SYSTEM OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 113

At half past six, when, after continual firing, no change in the
state of the building could be detected, the commission agreed to
extinguish the fire, which was done by directing a stream of water
from a hose against the walls and ceiling and afterward against the
coal piles.

When, on the following day, the fire authorities examined the
building, it was found that the conflagration had not injured the
general structure in any way. There was no permanent set in the
floors and the few fissures caused by the expansion were com-
pletely closed. A series of pyrometers indicated a temperature
of 22000 F.

Lime kilns, constructed entirely of concrete, dispensing with
fire bricks and steel shell, have endured for years a temperature
of 22000 to 25000 F.

From every point of view armored concrete buildings are
superior to those of any other type. They are monolithic; settle-
ment of the ground is properly transferred and equalized by means
of their enormous stiffness ; they consist of practically one material,
and variation of temperature cannot produce unsightly cracks ; they
become stronger with age, concrete forming an artificial stone
better than the best stone which ever came from a quarry; the
buildings are cool in summer and warm in winter.

Considering, moreover, the facility with which the materials
can be procured, so that only a few months are needed to erect the
largest building, together with the surprisingly low cost, it must
be evident that the time of steel skeleton buildings, with all their
flimsy lug and bracket connections, their insufficiently protected
columns and their high cost, is past and that they must give way
to a far superior type which will be the construction of the
twentieth century.

The photographs show the great range of work done by Mr.
Hennebique, including factories of all kinds, as flour and spinning
mills, ice factories and foundries with heavy traveling cranes, the
runways being also of concrete steel, smoke stacks, storage houses
and power blocks, apartment and office buildings of fifteen stories
in height, department stores, theaters, museums, banks and fire-
proof vaults, domes and churches, markets, railroad stations and
small switch houses, free supporting staircases, floors of any prac-
tical span (those in the Grand Palace of Fine Arts in Paris having
n span of 33 feet and a cantilever of 11 feet), exhibition buildings,
coal bins, water towers, grain elevators, power and irrigation
canals, tunnels, retaining walls, wharves and piers, and (last, but
not least) bridges.

114

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Armored concrete bridges are indestructible, requiring no
supervision or repairs. If of moderate span, they are cheaper than
steel bridges and have always a fine architectural appearance.

Through the columns of Engineering Nezus, of this year, we
have learned the disastrous results of adopting the so-called "Leg
bridges" for country roads. They consist of steel piles, forming the
abutments, and plate or lattice girders carrying the floors, the two
being connected by brace angles. They failed by scores. A few
concrete-steel piles and a 4-inch curtain wall as abutments, a few

•-XF- -a_T ----Ct = - l.crr--<cr-.-

1 k- ' 1 i

c-rJ_tr.J

Fig. 17. Cross Section of a Bridge.

Fig. 18. Longitudinal Section of Bridge over the Quai Debilly, Paris.

armored concrete piles mid span and a concrete steel floor, mono-
lithically connected with these piles, will make a bridge as cheap as
a "Leg bridge," but far better and indestructible.

Fig. 17 shows a typical cross section of a ferro-concrete bridge
of moderate span. The floor of the roadway and the cantilever
sidewalks form the compression flange, while the rods in the bottom
of the girders proper form the tensile flange of a huge girder, and,
for the same reason as in floors, this type of bridge is much stiffer
than are plate girder bridges. The cross girders, roadway and
sidewalks are all built of ferro-concrete.

HEXXEBIQUE SYSTEM OF COXCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 115

Footbridge over Railroad, Lorient, France.

Transportable Guard House for Orleans Railroad, France.

11

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ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Fig. 1 8 shows a longitudinal section of the bridge of the Quai
Debilly, in Paris. This is composed of twelve armored concrete

ggZEsg^^p;

Fig. 19. Retaining Wall of the Quai Debilly, Paris.

arches of 46 feet span, placed about 8 feet apart. The rise is 2
feet or oV of the span. The floor for the roadway and sidewalks

HENNEBIQUE SYSTEM OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 117

Bridge over the River La Vienne at Chatellerault, France.

Limekiln, Luzech, France.

u8

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

varies in thickness, and is supported by armored concrete cross
girders and about ioo feet wide. The abutments and foundations,
also built of armored concrete, are of special design.

Fig. 19 shows a section through the retaining walls. A cur-
tain wall, 6 inches thick, is connected by means of deep ribs with a

Fig. 20. Water Tower at Billancourt, France.

platform at mid-height. This platform supports a load of earth 10
feet deep, which in the simplest manner prevents overturning of the
walls. The bridge was calculated for a uniform load of 123 pounds
per square foot, and for a train of 10-ton wagons. It was tested
on February 6, 1900, by a uniform load of 123 pounds per square

HENNEBIQUE SYSTEM OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 119

120 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

foot, 248J tons in all, and gave a maximum deflection of only ^ inch
or 2iT¥ °f the span.

A second example is the bridge of Chatellerault, over the river
Yienne, in France. This is the greatest work of art that has been
constructed on the Hennebique system. The total length of the
bridge is 443 feet, and consists of three spans, the end spans of
135 feet with a rise of 13 feet, and a central span of 164 feet and a
rise of 15 feet 8 inches. Four arched ribs in armored concrete, 20
inches deep, support the floor of 25 feet width by means of 8 x 8
inch posts. The sidewalks partly overhang. The total thickness
of the bridge at the crown is only 28 inches.

It will be noticed that this bridge is designed on the same lines
as would be expected in steel-arch bridges, such as the Washington
bridge in New York; and the lightness of this structure explains
its surprisingly low cost of hardly $35,000.

The foundations of the bridge were easily laid, the calcareous
rock being found at 5 feet below low water mark. The piers and
abutments consist of heavy ribs, corresponding to the four arched
ribs and connected by curtain walls 5 inches thick, to give them
their external shape and stiffness. They were filled with low
grade concrete of hydraulic lime.

The bridge was calculated for the passage of two 16-ton
wagons, and for a uniform load of 100 pounds per square foot.
The concreting of the bridge was done in less than three months,
and five weeks later the centering was removed. The tests with
stationary loads were made in the following manner : each span
was loaded over its total length, then on each half, then on its cen-
tral part, with moist sand at the rate of 165 pounds per square foot
on the roadway and 123 pounds on the sidewalks.

The official report of the test says :

The maxima of the deflections were ^ inch for the arch of the
left shore, j\ inch for the arch of the right shore, and ^f inch for
the central arch, that is,TgVoand -guW °f the spans respectively.
The specifications allowed deflections of t9r inch for the 135-foot
span and of 2 inches for the 164-foot span. After removing the
loads no permanent deflection could be detected.

The moving test load was composed of :

First. One 16-ton steam roller ;

Second. Two two-axled wagons weighing 16 tons in all ;

Third. Six single-axle wagons weighing 8 tons in all ;
making a total of forty tons moving simultaneously over the bridge,
the sidewalk of which had to carry also 80 pounds per square foot.
The maximum deflection reached was less than 9-0W of the span.

HENXEBIQUE SYSTEM OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 121

Furthermore, 250 infantrymen were made to cross the bridge,
first in ordinary marching order, then in double quick time. Also,
strips of wood were strewn over the roadway in order to produce
shocks when the steam roller passed over them.

But the most remarkable feature shown by these tests was that
the three arches were in fact continuous, so that the load which
caused a depression in one arch produced at the same time a rise
of the other arches, an evident proof that ferro-concrete structures
are monoliths.

Dome of the Museum of the Egyptian Antiquities at Cairo, Egypt.

You will be surprised at the numerous applications of the
Hennebique system. The explanation is simple. The inventor has
been able to interest in his system a great many engineers,
architects, practical and scientific men, who have imparted to him
their ideas and have become his collaborators.

Europe is to-day in the lead of concrete-steel structures. Let
as hope that the enterprising American spirit will, as energetically
as formerly with regard to steel, take up and lead in this, which
is undoubtedly the greatest industry which we have to expect in
the twentieth centurv.

122 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC SOURCES OF CONTAMINA-
TION OF WATER SUPPLIES.

By E. Starz, Member Montana Society of Engineers.

{Delivered before the Society, January 10, 1901, at the Fifteenth Annual

Meeting.*]

Pure and wholesome water is one of the first necessities for a
prosperous community. Since scientific research has revealed the
fact that certain diseases are spread broadcast through drinking
water, great interest has been aroused among the water-consuming
public, as well as among those who are in charge of the water sup-
plies. Throughout this country and abroad laws have been enacted
to minimize the contamination of water sources, and nothing has
proved more beneficial, or has paid back better, than the strict
enforcement of such laws. The fact that in cities with a good sani-
tary water supply the mortality is generally less than in those not
so blessed should be sufficient to arouse general interest.

The engineer in charge of a water supply is as deeply interested
in the quality of a water supply as in its quantity, and to-day he
must work together with the chemist and microscopist if he will
command the position he is endeavoring to fill.

The fact that a water supply is contaminated with organic or
inorganic matter is not sufficient alone ; it is equally necessary to
know the exact nature of the polluting material.

Biological examination of water was introduced only a few
years ago, but it has already proved of great value, and the inter-
pretation of results of a water analysis is greatly facilitated when
undertaken in connection with the micro-biological findings.

The Sedgwick rafter method of concentrating and quantita-
tively estimating the number of suspended organisms in one cubic
•centimeter of water is of the greatest help to the biologist and
chemist.

Another important step in determining contamination due to
small organisms is the method of growing bacteria in certain
culture media and transplanting or inoculating the growth from one
tube to another until a pure culture of the germ is isolated, by means
of which all the tests for identification can be made and the specific
atomic organism definitely recognized. The quantitative estima-
tion of the number of germ colonies in one cubic centimeter of

♦Manuscript received June 26, 1902. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 123

water has also proved valuable ; but, of course, the differentiation
of the quality of certain germs — that is, whether or not they are
disease-producing germs — is of more practical value.

Thus science has found methods and processes which facilitate
the work of investigation and make it possible for the engineer,
chemist and biologist to apply remedies to a polluted water system
or to prevent altogether its impregnation with foreign matter.

The consumer of drinking water demands that it be clear, odor-
less, tasteless and colorless, and, while these properties do not
demonstrate that the water is free from polluting substances (be-
cause the most harmful of such substances escape coarse physical
observation), the demand shows, nevertheless, that the esthetic
point is not lost sight of. On the other hand, of course, a turbid
water need not necessarily be dangerous to health, but it is repul-
sive, owing to it's disgusting looks. Waters having odors and bad
taste are objectionable and, as a rule, suspicious, because they gen-
erally indicate that the water is rich in dissolved organic substances,
and such a water furnishes a very good substratum for the multi-
plication of germs, pathogenic as well as harmless.

Our wrater supplies generally comprise ( 1 ) surface water,
such as spring, river, stream or lake water; (2) subsoil water, such
as we have in wells, and (3) deep or artesian well water.

Of the three sources, the most common and important in our
Western states are surface and subsoil waters, and, of the former,
river, stream and spring water. Wells represent, as a rule, the
subsoil water.

All streams, rivers and springs used for public water supply
are exposed to contaminating influences, the possibilities of con-
tamination increasing with the length of the flow of the stream and
with the number of habitations along its borders. The same is
often the case with wells, especially when so situated that surface
drainage can easily gain access to them. Below I shall give some
facts from which it will be seen how dangerous to health may be
a poorly constructed and badly located well, receiving percolating
refuse and waste water from surrounding houses and stables. A
heavy rain or melting snow might convey to a well obnoxious ma-
terial, which has lain inert for months, and create a severe out-
break of disease. The fact that nothing of that kind has happened
with the water in the well during the last five or ten years does not
remove the possibility that to-morrow infection from surface drain-
age may take place, with disastrous results. Properly constructed
wells, remote from stables, human habitations and other sources of
pollution, deliver, as a rule, wholesome, potable water.

i24 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Contamination of drinking water comprises all foreign sub-
stances not essentially found in natural waters, but the sources of
contamination are manifold and of different character, and we may
classify them as follows :

/. Inorganic sources of contamination.

(A) Soluble.

(B) Insoluble or suspended matter.

II. Organic.

(A) Living organic matter,

„ ( a. Vegetable )
of - , a • 1 f nature.
( b. Animal )

(B) Dead organic matter.

INORGANIC SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION OF WATER SUPPLIES.

Under this head come principally industrial and mining enter-
prises, the waste products of which are sometimes allowed to mingle
with the water supply of a community, rendering it impotable.
Stamp mills, concentrators and placer mines furnish, as a rule, most
of the insoluble (suspended) inorganic polluting matter, while
manufacturing establishments, mines, cyanide plants furnish dis-
solved inorganic elements. Clay, talcum (silicate of magnesia),
sulphate of lime, when very finely divided, and mixed, for instance,
with the water of a stream supplying water for drinking purposes,
subside very slowly, rendering the water milky and turbid.

While these substances have no physiological action upon the
human system, they may, when present in large quantities and in-
gested into the stomach, cause trouble by mechanical action.
Smelter slacks, when in very fine condition, may become obnoxious
when mixed with water used for human or animal consumption.
They consist, as a rule, of iron, arsenic, sometimes copper, zinc, an-
timony and traces of lead in combination with sulphur, according to
the composition of the ores used in the smelting operation.

These sulphides are practically insoluble in water, and they re-
tain some of their component poisonous elements until they are ex-
posed in moist condition to the atmospheric oxygen and carbonic
acid, when oxidation and the formation of more soluble elements
take place. The latter may subsequently be washed into the water
with the next rain or the melting of snow, and thus lead to occa-
sional poisoning of men and animals. Placer mining is sometimes
a source of inorganic contamination, if the waste water, as a rule
heavily loaded with fine suspended earthy particles, has opportunity
to gain access to a water supply.

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 125

Most of the above-mentioned sources of pollution render a
water supply objectionable, mainly through the unsightly appear-
ance they give to it.

Soluble inorganic contamination comprises all those elements
which are not a component part of natural waters and which have
a decided action upon it, affecting, for instance, its taste, odor and
color, or which possess distinctly poisonous properties when intro-
duced into the human system.

As an example, I might mention the astringent taste which cer-
tain iron salts communicate to water, and occasionally water sources
in mining districts have suffered through the admixture of iron
which originated from the iron pyrites occurring in the mines.

The iron pyrites, exposed to moist atmosphere, decompose in
about the following manner : A part of the sulphur of the pyrites
is oxidized to sulphuric acid, which now acts upon the remaining
pyrites or sulphide of iron, decomposing it, so that hydrogen sul-
phide is produced on the one hand and on the other a soluble sul-
phate of iron. The latter would soon undergo oxidation to ferric
salts were it not for the reducing action of the hydrogen sulphide,
prohibiting at this point the passage of the ferrous salt into the
ferric state.

As soon, however, as the ferrous sulphate is carried away with
the water, and no reducing action interferes any longer with it,
oxidation takes place and goes on until most of the ferrous salt is
precipitated as an insoluble hydrated sesquioxide of iron, which is
of a yellow (rusty) color, and subsides readily.

Other and more serious cases of contamination with soluble
inorganic substances are on record. For instance, lead poisoning is
caused by leaden water pipes and by springs flowing through ex-
tensive lead deposits. Copper, zinc and arsenic also sometimes
render water unfit for domestic use.

Lead, copper, arsenium and zinc are considered dangerous in
any amount present in a drinking water supply.

SOURCES OF ORGANIC CONTAMINATION.

Living organic substances, which include the pathogenic bac-
teria, have caused more annoyance than probably any other source
of contamination.

The pathogenic or disease-producing bacteria are the most dan-
gerous, and hence most unwelcome, parasites in a water supply.
An insignificant creature, a cell scarcely discernible under a micro-
scope, may become the slayer of thousands of persons. It has

126 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

caused epidemics of cholera and typhoid fever which have deci-
mated population and have cost communities enormous sums of
money.

What are bacteria ?

Every second during life we make the acquaintance with bac-
teria or germs, but it is the privilege of only a few to see them and
to watch their doings while they are alive. Bacteria, cocci, bacilli
or microbes are one-celled microscopic organisms, belonging to the

i, Bacillus of Typhoid Fever; 2, Bacillus of Asiatic Cholera ; 3, Bacillus of Coli Communis;
4, Cocci— Staphylococcus and Streptococcus.

lowest form of plants. They are destitute of chlorophyll, the
green coloring matter of higher vegetation, and are either sapro-
phytes (living in the external world at the expense of dead organic
matter) or parasites (invading living organisms). They live at the
expense of complex organic substances, which they reduce to the
condition of simple mineral compounds. Microbes are found in
the atmospheric air, waters, soil, food, the living organism, clothing,

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 127

dwellings, etc. They propagate or multiplicate by binary division.
When circumstances are favorable for rapid multiplication, the indi-
vidual cells grow in length, and a constriction occurs in the middle
transverse to the long diameter. This becomes deeper, and after a
time the cell is completely divided into two equal portions, which
again divide in the same way. Separation may be complete or the
cells may remain attached to each other, forming chains, like the
streptococci or articulated filaments. The bacilli divide only in a
direction transverse to the long diameter of the cells, but among
cocci division may occur in two or three directions.

As already mentioned, germs are present almost everywhere,
and, fortunately, most of those found in water, air, rooms, etc., are
harmless or not disease-producing, and some serve even a good pur-
pose by producing certain phenomena, such as fermentation and
nitrification.

Surface waters are always very rich in germs, the nature of
which is extremely variable ; the majority are harmless, pathogenic
or disease germs being much less frequent. Waters rich in dead
crganic matter favor the multiplication of germs.

Among the most important disease-producing microbes to be
here considered are the bacillus (typhosus eberth) of typhoid fever
and Koch's comma bacillus, or the germ of Asiatic cholera. Both
have done immense damage to the human race, and in some coun-
tries laws have been enacted to prevent the contamination of water
supplies with these germs. During the cholera epidemic in Lon-
don, 1832, no out of 10,000 people died in Southwark ; in 1849,
121 out of 10,000; in 1854, 154 out of 10,000 succumbed to the
disease. The cholera epidemic in Hamburg in 1892 serves as
another example of the transmission of cholera germs through
water used for domestic purposes.

Typhoid fever is the result of unsanitary conditions brought
about by man, and, since our population is increasing in every di-
rection, and the raising of cattle, hogs and domestic fowls is propor-
tionately multiplied, in order to supply sufficient food, there is
necessarily a similar increase of waste products, such as human and
animal dejecta, vegetable waste and various kinds of refuse pro-
ducts from the kitchen, butcher shops and wash houses, which, in
the process of decomposition and decay, are liable to enter our
streams and pollute them so as to endanger the health and lives of
those who use them as their sources of water supply.

The germs of typhoid fever and of cholera can be conveyed
into a water supply in different ways :

First. Through the sewerage of the city.

128

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Second. Through being carried into a stream by surface
washing from rain and snow.

Third. By being carried down into the subsoil by percolation.

Fourth. By flying insects, birds, etc.

Fifth. By wind and rain.

Almost every year outbreaks of typhoid fever come to our no-
tice, and most of them have their origin in polluted water sources.
The bacillus of typhoid fever, voided with faecal matters, may pass

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rod

with the liquids of cesspools through porous soils and thus con-
taminate subterranean waters. When these waters are used for
human consumption, an outbreak of typhoid fever may result. The
knowledge of this fact has enabled us in numerous cases to trace
the disease to its source and to check its extension.

Pathogenic bacteria preserve their virulence in water for vary-
ing periods. The bacillus of typhoid fever retains its vitality for
two months; that of anthrax (charbon) for four months, etc.

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 129

diatoms (Diatomacece).

Diatoms comprise a class of unicellular cryptogamous plants,
with siliceous cell walls and regular markings. The diatom is con-
structed like a glass box, having a top valve and a bottom valve, on
both of which markings are found. The valves are connected by
membranes or girdles. There are two of these membranes, one at-
tached to each valve, and so arranged that one slides over the other.
Diatoms are found in all shapes, oval, needle-shaped, round, canoe-
shaped, triangular, etc., and varying in size from ten mikrons to one
mikron. They exhibit movements, and multiply by a process of
binarv division. While the majority of these organisms are harm-
less, some of them have given owners of water supplies the greatest
trouble by imparting to the water a bad odor and taste. Whipple,
in his work on the microscopy of drinking water, says : "Almost
all surface waters have some odor ; many times it is too faint to be
noticed by the ordinary consumer, though it can be detected by one
whose sense of smell is carefully trained. On the other hand, the
water in a pond may have so strong an odor that it is offensive sev-
eral hundred feet away."

Between these two extremes one meets with odors that vary in
intensity and in character, and that are often the source of much
annoyance and complaint. Whipple divides the odors of surface
waters into three groups :

First. Odors caused by organic matter other than living or-
ganism.

Second. Odors caused by the decomposition of organic matter.
Third. Odors caused by living organism.

The latter are the most important, because of their common
occurrence and of their offensive nature, and because they gener-
ally affect large bodies of water, such as reservoirs, etc. Just as
nature has provided the skunk, the muskox and some other of the
higher animals, and also a majority of the higher plants, such as
violets, roses, etc., with odoriferous substances, so has nature not
overlooked these minute diatoms. It was formerly supposed that
the odors transmitted to the water by certain diatoms were the
outcome of the decay of those organisms, but scientists have found
that the odor is innate to them, as is the smell of the violet to that
flower. Whether the odoriferous substance is a defensive agent
for the little diatom against small animalcules, or whether it serves
some other purpose, is a matter yet to be studied.

Asterionella is one of the most troublesome representatives of
the diatomaceae, on account of the very offensive odor it imparts to
the water. In 1896 it developed in Ridgewood Reservoir, in Brook-

130

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

lyn, N. Y., in great abundance and rendered the water very of-
fensive.

Synedra, another diatom, is occasionally observed in water sup-
plies, and it imparts to them a bad taste, odor and turbidity when
present in large numbers, say about nine thousand per cubic centi-
meter.

Melosira, tabellaria, stephanodiscus are other diatoms which
give rise to offensive odors and taste to drinking water.

...-£

Asterionella {Diatomacece) .

Other plants contaminating drinking water supplies by creation
of bad odor and taste are found among the schizophytes or cyano-
phyceae (blue-green algae). The most troublesome representative
of these is the anabaena, which, probably more than any other or-
ganism, has caused trouble with water supplies in different parts of
this country.

The anabaena flos aquae is a free-swimming (aeruginous) or
bluish-green alga, more or less curved, often circinate, with ellipti-

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 131

cal heterocysts and globose spores. The diameter of the filaments
is four to six millimeters, and that of the heterocysts often eight to
twelve millimeters. The plant is surrounded by a gelatinous envel-
ope. The coloring matter is distributed throughout the cells, and
consists of chlorophyll and phycocyanin (a nitrogenous body).
The plant sometimes multiplies by simply dividing and forming
cells, each like the parent cell. Another method consists of forming

CYANOPHYCEyE.

thick-walled spores which are able to withstand the adversities of
temperature and other atmospheric conditions. These spores are
the cause of the sudden appearance of the anabsena in reservoirs.
They are probably washed into it by a stream or spring and fall to
the muddy bottom, where they may remain inactive for a long
period, until temperature and other influences favor their germina-
tion. Toward June, July, or sometimes earlier, the young plants
begin to show their presence, first as minute whitish specks on the

132 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

surface of the water, later on forming a scum and at the same time
producing a bad smell and taste in the water, suggesting that of
mouldy (nasturtium stem) grass which renders the water en-
tirely unfit for use. At this point the water acquires an opalescent
appearance, due to the finely divided cells. Upon heating the wat"r
the bad odor increases. Jackson and Ellms state that the odor is
caused by the breaking down of highly organized compounds of

Anab.ena.

sulphur and phosphorus, and in presence of large amounts of nitro-
gen, about 9.66 per cent. According to Whipple, the gas given
off during decomposition of the anabsena is composed of :

Marsh gas 0.8 per cent.

Carbonic acid (CO2) 1-5 per cent.

Oxygen 2.9 per cent.

Nitrogen 12.4 per cent.

Hydrogen 8.2.4 per cent.

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 133

Generally toward September the anabaena disappears, after
having seeded the mud at the bottom of the reservoirs with spores,
the latter remaining at rest until the following spring, when thermal
conditions cause the same process of evolution as in the previous
year. From this little pest one of the greatest water systems in the-
West has suffered for several years past, and, as far as I am aware,,
all efforts to eradicate it have been fruitless. The only successful!

Crenothrix.

way is to shut the infected water supply out. Now, in justice to
those in charge of such water supplies, polluted by odor-producing
organisms, I will say that they cannot fairly be held responsible
for the pollution, and that they are sometimes very unjustly criti-
cised, because they never can foresee the invasion of microscopic
organism like the anabsena, and no filtration or other process could
restore the water to its original condition. It is a hopeless fight, a
battle with disastrous result, because the microscopic organism will

134 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

come out victorious, and those in charge, who do their best to re-
lieve their patrons from the stench of the water, have to foot the
bills and quit. The Boston and Brooklyn water supplies had to
fight the same pest, and monographs about the anabsena and its
offensive conduct have been written by the most prominent biolo-
gists in the country.

Diatomace^.

i, Epithemia ; 2, Navicula ; 3, Struroncis ; 4, Cyclotella; 5, Pleurosigma; 6, Survella.

Chlokophvce.e.

7, Raphidium and Closterium ; 8, Cosmarium ; 9, Scenedesnius ; jo and 12, Polyedrium;
11, Pediastrium ; 13 and 14, Protococcus.

In the same class belong a few others which sometimes give
trouble to a water supply. They are chroococcus, glceocapsa,
cylindro-spermum, scytonema, rivularia.

Among the schizomycetes are also a few very obnoxious organ-
isms which in several cases have done harm to water supplies. The
main perpetrator of this class is crenothrix, which created a water
calamity in Berlin in 1878, and also in Rotterdam in 1887. Creno-

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 135

thrix causes trouble by growing almost everywhere in a water sys-
tem, on the walls of reservoirs and in the filter galleries and distri-
bution pipes, the latter of which it may entirely fill up. It is a small
filamentous plant, the cells of which are not much larger than the
bacteria. Its filaments have gelatinous sheets, colored generally
brown by a deposit of ferric oxide. It grows in tufts, and its fila-
ments are sometimes interwoven like felt.

Beggiatoa is another representative, mostly found in waste
waters and sewage, and its presence in a water supply indicates very

Mucor {Fungi).

probably sewage pollution. It presents almost colorless threads,
containing numerous dark sulphur granules. The filaments have
frequently an active oscillating movement.

Fungi (moulds) are sometimes found in well water of doubtful
purity. They are flowerless plants, destitute of chlorophyll and
starch, and unable to assimilate inorganic matter. They conse-
quently live as saprophytes or parasites ; that is, they live upon dead

136 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

organic matter or in or upon some living host, just like the microbes.
They grow in absence of light, and are essentially terrestrial, some-
times semi-aquatic, organisms. As a rule, fungi consist of two
parts, the mycelium and the sporangium (fruit-bearing part). The
mycelium is the vegetative portion of the plant. The sporangia are
at the end of the hyphse. The spores are smooth, spherical and
from four to eight millimeters in diameter in mucoracemosus, a
common representative of this class. Saprolegnia, achlya and the
yeast fungus or saccharomyces might be mentioned here. Sapro-
legnia has in several places caused trouble with fishes by growing
ever their eyes and covering with their mycelium the entire head
of the fish, which slowly succumbs to the parasite. Yeast fungi in
a water supply might indicate contamination by kitchen refuse or
by refuse from breweries and other establishments in which yeast is
used.

With the fungi I will close the chapter of contamination with
living (organic) vegetable organisms, and will consider briefly a
few of the living animal organisms which have given more or less
occasion for complaint when present in large numbers in a water
supply.

The protozoa are the lowest organisms of the animal kingdom.
They are minute organisms, consisting strictly of one cell, but fre-
quently found in aggregations of many cells, each individua1 cell
preserving its identity. The protozoan cell is a mass of protoplasm,
possessing all the properties of the protoplasm of higher animal
cells. It varies in size from a microscopic point to one inch in
diameter. Its form may be regular or it may have a cell wall and a
definite symmetrical outline. It' contains usually a contractile vacu-
ole, which has the faculty of contracting and expanding, and also
of discharging gaseous and watery matter through the cell. The
simplest protozoa absorb solid particles of food at any point on their
surfaces. Digestion takes place within the cell.

Higher protozoa have a distinct oral aperture through which
the food enters, a sort of pharyngeal canal and an anal opening,
through which undigested particles of food can pass. Multiplica-
tion takes place by binary division, by encystment and formation of
spores, or by conjugation followed by increased power of division.
The amoeba is probably the simplest representative of the lower
protozoa. It is formed of a soft, colorless, granular mass of proto-
plasm, possessing extensile and contractile power; has lobose finger-
like processes, and ingests its food by flowing around and engulfing
it. Frequently the ingested food material (diatoms, algae, etc.) is
plainly conspicuous. The amoeba is generally found in shallow

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 137

ditches and ponds. Synura, cryptomanas and euglena are free-
swimming protozoa (animalcules), found sometimes in water sup-
plies in considerable numbers ; also dinobryon, peridinium, gleno-
dinium, paramsecium and uroglena, the latter having caused consid-
erable annoyance in certain water supplies. The uroglena is de-
scribed by G. T. Moore as follows : "Uroglena is found in New
England, and has been reported as far west as Indiana. The proba-
bilities are that it is widely distributed in this country, but has not

1, Synura {Protozoa) ; 2, Euglena (Protozoa) ; 3.
4, Amceba (Protozoa

Beggiatoa (Schizomycetes)

been recognized in many localities. In appearance uroglena re-
sembles a colorless sphere, with numerous small greenish cells im-
bedded in its periphery. The whole colony measures sometimes
almost one-half millimeter in diameter, although it is usually much
smaller. The individual cells are each provided with a pair of cilia
of unequal length, and it is by the vibration of these that the whole
colony is revolved through the water. Each cell of the colony con-
tains a nucleus, a red spot and a single greenish color body, besides

138 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

several vacuoles. In addition, there is a considerable number of
oil globules, and it is the liberation of this oil which causes the fishy,
oily taste and odor produced by uroglena. Among the algoe
and schizophycese the contamination is nearly always brought about
by decay, but in this case the trouble is produced simply through
the mechanical breaking up of the organism and the consequent
liberation of the oil contained within the cells. Usually the pump-
ing or gravity necessarv to distribute the water is sufficient to free

i, Paramecium {Protozoa) ; 2, Rotifer (Rotifera) ; 3, Uroglena (Protozoa) ;
4, Dinobryon (Protozoa).

the oil, for the cells are very fragile. In one instance, where the
water was used almost continuously for several days for washing
caterpillars off the trees, a marked increase in the disagreeable odor
and taste was the result. The exact nature of this oil is not very
well understood. It is non-volatile at the temperature of boiling
water, and seems to resemble the oils obtained from diatoms and
eyanophyceae. No sexual method of propagation has as yet been

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 139

observed in uroglena, but it has a rather peculiar method of cell
division, which enables it to multiply rapidly. Before a cell divides
if turns in the periphery of the hollow gelatinous sphere until it is
in a position at right angles to the one usually occupied. Then, at
the end of the cell which originally pointed toward the center of the
sphere, there are formed a pair of cilia, like those at the opposite
pole, and a red spot appears. The cell then begins to be sharply
constricted, and, as it gradually divides, the two halves are drawn

Daph nia ( Crustacea ) .

back through an angle of 45 degrees, so that, when the new cells
are finally formed, they occupy a position similar to the one nor-
mally held by the mother cell. When a colony becomes too large,
it breaks up into individual cells, and these soon, by repeated di-
vision, grow into new spheres. In addition to this mode of pro-
pagation, nesting spores are formed, which enable the organism to
survive conditions which would otherwise exterminate it. In this

140 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

country uroglena seems to thrive best in cold temperatures, it
usually occurring in greatest numbers when the water is frozen
ever. Just the reverse is true in Europe, where it is more abundant
in July and August, and disappears entirely at the approach of cold
weather."

Synura, also a protozoa, and probably few others have given
rise to contamination of water sources by imparting bad odor or
smell.

So far as I know, no case of water contamination is known
in our state which could be attributed to one or the other men-
tioned protozoa. Occasionally, during microscopical examination
of water, we meet with very interesting animalcules, among which
are rotifera and Crustacea.

The rotifera are quite highly organized multicellular ani-
malcules, which have a well-defined digestive system, a set of jaws
for mastication, salivary glands, an oesophagus, gastric glands, a
stomach, intestines and an anus. Males, as well as females, are
observed, the latter generally predominating.

They are bilaterally symmetrical, and have a corona of cilia
springing from disk-like lobes surrounding the mouth at the an-
terior end. With these cilias they create currents. in the water,
whereby food particles are carried into the mouth. The rotifera
have many different forms, from the simplest circle up to the most
complex forms. Beside the rotifera a still more highly organized
class of animalcules sometimes make their appearance in water
supplies. These are the Crustacea, which are about the size of a
pin head. The body of the organism is segmented. In some cases
there are distinct head and tail regions. They have one or two
pairs of antenna?, springing near the head. The feet vary in num-
ber, position and character. There is one conspicuous eye, usually
black or reddish, situated in the head region. Near the mouth are
two mandibles, and near them the foot jaws, armed with spines or
claws. There is a heart, that causes circulation of colorless blood,
and well-marked muscular, digestive and reproductive nervous
systems.

When present in very large quantities, these organisms may
transmit a faint fishy odor to the water in which they live.
Daphnia and cyclops are common representatives of this group of
animalcules.

The last chapter on contamination of water with organic mat-
ter is that treating of dead organic substances.

Decaying leaves, plants, vegetable and animal matter of all
kinds are very liable to gain access to a water supply, and especially

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 141

to those which derive their water from streams, lakes and some-
times wells. The presence of large amounts of vegetable and ani-
mal detritus is objectionable in any water supply, not only from an
esthetic point of view, but also from the fact that it offers a most
suitable medium for the growth of the greatest enemies of the
human race — the disease germs which thrive and multiply luxuri-
antly in such an environment. Then it might be well to mention
some common sources of contamination of wells with organic kitch-
en refuse. I have several times found in contaminated wells tissue
of animal origin, starch cells, yeast and other fungi, beside bacteria
of different kinds. In all these cases it was shown that defective
location and construction made it possible for surface drainage
to reach the water in the well. A tubful of water used in washing
soiled clothing, for instance, from a typhoid fever patient, and care-
lessly thrown about the premises, may create the most virulent
outbreak of the disease through the contamination of the water
from a nearby well, into which some of the wash water, impreg-
nated with the specific disease germ, had gained access. Numerous
other examples of this kind could be given were it not for the
limited time and space to which I must confine myself ; but I hope
the few examples given will have shown the great value of a techni-
cal, chemical and biological examination of a public water supply
and its bearing upon the sanitary condition of a community. When
we realize the necessity of the formation of a triple alliance between
the engineer, the chemist and the biologist, we have it in our power
to free the human race from most of the evils arising from an im-
pure water supply.

Use has been made freely of Mason's work on Water Supply,
Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking Water and other contributions
dealing with the subject.

wu&A

Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.

As

SOCIATION

OF

NGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Organized 1881.

. ! % CW, v

Vol XXIX. OCTOBER, 1902. No. 4.

This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or for
the statements or opinions of members of the Societies.

THE NEW WORKS AND WATER SUPPLY OF THE
BUTTE WATER COMPANY.

By Charles W. Paine, Member Montana Society of Engineers.

[Read before the Society, January 10. 1902.*]

The City of Butte lies upon the northerly side of Silver Bow
Creek, upon ground rising from an elevation above sea level of
about 5400 at the Creek to 6250 at the Company's High Service
reservoir. It is on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains
about four miles west of the crest of the Continental Divide. Its
water supply has at different times been derived from various
sources ; the rapid and surprising growth of the City necessitating
constant changes and enlargement of the system. In 1891, when
the works came under the present management, they were largely
rebuilt and the capacity greatly increased. It was then believed
that ample provision had been made for the needs of the City for
many years. An increase in population of nearly two hundred per
cent, in ten years had, however, not been contemplated, and before
six years had passed the capacity of the new plant was taxed to its
utmost to meet the demands upon it. It was then determined to
put in the new works which it is the purpose of this paper to
describe. i

The new works consist of ( 1 ) a pipe line from the Big Hole
River to the City, 27.2 miles in length; (2) three reservoirs, viz.:
one high service reservoir near the upper part of the City, one
reservoir (called the West Side reservoir) designed to supply the
middle section of the City, and one reservoir on the South Fork

"Manuscript received October 6, 1902. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

Note. — Plan of West Side reservoir and profiles of pipe lines, received
too late for publication with Mr. Paine's paper, will be presented in the
Journal for November.

13

144 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

of Divide Creek, i84 miles from the City, serving as a distributing
reservoir; and (3) two pumping stations, viz. : one at the West Side
reservoir for supplying the high service reservoir, and one at the
Big Hole River.

THE PIPE LINE.

The pipe line, put in in 1891 to convey the water of the Basin
Creek reservoir to the City, is made up largely of wooden stave
pipe, built by the Excelsior Wooden Pipe Company, of San Fran-
cisco. This pipe has rendered such satisfactory service that it was
decided, for this reason and because of economy in first cost, to
use as much wooden pipe as possible in the new lines. Out of the
entire line there are about 6.5 miles of steel pipe and 20.7 miles of
wooden pipe. From the South Fork reservoir to the City, the
wooden pipe is a banded redwood stave pipe, built continuously in
the trench. It is 24 inches inside diameter and is designed to carry
8,000,000 gallons daily.

In computing the capacity, Kutter's formula was used, the
value of n being taken as 0.0 10. The pipe was built under the well-
known Allen patent. The staves were made from perfectly clear,
well-seasoned California redwood, finished to a thickness of 1 7-16
inches. The edges of each stave were dressed accurately to radial
planes and the sides were dressed to conform to the inside and
outside circumferences of the pipe. The bands are of round steel,
7-16 inches in diameter, the two ends being connected by a malle-
able iron shoe. The specifications prescribe that the bands shall
have a tensile strength of from 58,000 to 65,000 pounds per square
inch, an elastic limit of 60 per cent, of the tensile strength, an
elongation of 24 per cent, in 8 inches and a reduction of area of 50
per cent. Also that the steel shall admit of being bent cold 1800
flat upon itself without signs of fracture. Before being placed
upon the pipe, the bands were coated by dipping in a bath of hot
asphaltum. The tongues, connecting the abutting ends of the
staves, are of No. 12 steel 1^ inches in width and slightly longer
than the width of the staves. The staves varied in length from 10
to 24 feet and were made to break joints not less than 24 inches.

As soon as the pipe was completed, it was covered with earth
to a depth sufficient to protect it from the sun, and as soon as con-
venient the final covering was put on. This is nowhere less than
2 feet.

The spacing of the bands varies with every 5 feet change in
pressure and is at the rate of 358 bands per 100 feet head per 100
lineal feet. The maximum distance between bands is 12 inches.

NEW WORKS OF THE BUTTE WATER COMPANY. 145

The variation in cost of wooden pipe corresponds quite closely
with variation in head, and more care in making the location is
therefore demanded than with steel pipe, which permits a much
wider range of pressure without a change in price. The price per
lineal foot of wooden pipe changes with every 10 feet change in
head. With steel pipe, using the standard commercial gauges, the
change occurs generally with every 50 feet change in head. In
making the location over the rough, hilly country traversed by this
line, it was found that the cheapest line was not one following the
hydraulic grade line closely. It was usually cheaper to cross val-
leys and ravines boldly, even if this involved the introduction of
steel pipe for the heavier pressures than to attempt to follow the
grade line around them.

Starting at the Big Hole River, with elevation 5393 at low
water, the line rises sharply up the mountain side to elevation 6178,
2 feet below the intake chamber at the South Fork reservoir. This
elevation is reached at a point about 3000 feet from the river. A
stand pipe, or overflow pipe, is here connected to the main pipe
and extends up to the hydraulic grade line at elevation 6235.
Seven hundred feet beyond this Charcoal Gulch is crossed. Here
630 feet of steel pipe are used. From Charcoal Gulch to the re-
servoir the line is at all points kept below the level of the intake
chamber, to insure that the pipe shall always be full of water. It
follows the eastern slope of Fleecer Mountain in a northerly direc-
tion to the South Fork reservoir. From the South Fork reservoir
to the West Side reservoir the line was kept as near as was found
economical to the hydraulic grade line. The Continental Divide is
crossed at elevation 6075. There are four sections of steel pipe in
this line, at points where the head was beyond the limit for wooden
pipe. It was considered desirable to control the flow of water in the
pipe at the West Side reservoir in Butte, also to maintain the
wooden pipe full at all times in order to prevent decay of the woodj
This involved the possibility of closing the line completely and
throwing upon the entire line the pressure due to the elevation of
the South Fork reservoir. Under such condition the greater part
of the line would be subjected to pressures too great for wooden
pipe, and a pipe line, strong enough to sustain the possible press-
ure would be required. To overcome this difficulty, automatic regu-
lating valves were placed in the line, dividing it into five sections, in
each of which the additional pressure, thrown upon the line at any
point by shutting off the flow at the lower end, is that due to the
difference in elevation between the hydraulic grade line at the
given point and the elevation of the water at the upper end of the

146

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

section. The line of maximum pressure is made up of a series of
level lines stepping down from the level of the South Fork reservoir
to that of the water at the head of the last section. The regulating
valves were set in concrete chambers arched over and covered with
earth. The operation of the valves is as follows : On closing the
valve at the West Side reservoir, water rises in the chamber at the
head of the section next to the reservoir, lifting the float attached
to the stem of the regulating valve and closing it. This is repeated
in every section. The valves adjust themselves to any given flow
in a similar manner. Should any valve fail to act, water flows over
a waste weir, set slightly above the elevation necessary to close the
valve and escapes through a drain pipe.

Fig. 1. Butte Water Works. Section of Regulating Chamber.

Some trouble was experienced at first from water hammer
caused by the valves closing too quickly ; this has been remedied by
attaching dashpots to the levers operating the valves. The dashpots
are cylinders with closely fitting pistons connected to the lever. The
attachment is made adjustable by means of a chain so that the
dashpot may be made to come into action at such time as experience
may show to be best. The cylinders are completely filled with
alcohol. The time required in closing the valve is regulated by a
valve on a by-pass connecting the two ends of the dashpot.
Another by-pass, with a check valve, permits much more rapid
movement in opening.

The introduction of the valve chambers reduced the cost of the
line approximately $90,000 below that of a continuous or unbroken

NEW WORKS OF THE BUTTE WATER COMPANY.

147

line. Data are not available for comparison with the more probable
alternative line, one with a reservoir on the south side of Silver
Bow Creek.

On the line from the South Fork to the West Side reservoir
there are ten gate valves in addition to the regulating valves.
There are also drains or blow-offs at low points, and air valves at all
summits. For admitting air when the pipe is being drained, or-
dinary vertical 2-inch brass checks are used. On the Bi°; Hole

Weights

jmi

D(is/i
Pot.

H

m Check

T

Fig. 2. Dashpot Details.

line there is but one gate valve outside the pumping station. This
is at the South Fork reservoir and is designed to be used only in
connection with the by-pass between the two lines. When closed,
it brings no additional pressure on the line, an overflow being
provided near the valve.

Eight-inch blow-offs are set in low points, and air valves and
check valves at summits. The wooden pipe on this line is 26 inches
in diameter. It was found that because of less friction, and the con-
sequent reduction of pressure, 26-inch pipe was cheaper than 24-
inch.

148 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

STEEL PIPE.

The specifications for steel pipe call for medium open-hearth
steel having an ultimate tensile strength of not less than 60,000 nor
more than 68,000 pounds per square inch, an elastic limit of not
less than one-half the ultimate strength, an elongation of 22 per
cent, in 8 inches and a reduction of area at fracture of 40 per cent.,
and capable of being bent cold 180 degrees to a diameter equal to
the thickness of the piece tested. Rivets were required to be of
the best soft-rivet steel, capable of meeting the Manufacturers
Standard Specifications.

The pipe was built with cylinder joints, each alternate section
telescoping into slightly larger adjacent sections. Longitudinal
joints are double riveted, roundabout seams single riveted. The
shop riveting was done by hydraulic riveting machines, the field
work by pneumatic riveters, the Boyer Long Stroke machine being
used. After being riveted and calked in the shop, every pipe was
tested to a pressure equal to 1.8 times the working pressure, and
made perfectly tight under this pressure before being coated. The
coating used was Assyrian and Alcatraz asphalt, at 300 degrees
temperature.

The pipes were usually shipped in lengths of 28 to 30 feet.

The small angles were made by bands. In most cases the pipe
was laid to the required angle, the adjacent pipes separated by only
a few inches ; bands were then fitted to make the connection. The
large angles were made in the shop.

Plates having a thickness of 7-16 inch or more were drilled
instead of being punched. Manholes were placed on the steel-pipe
line at intervals of about 500 feet.

TRENCHING.

The trenches were made 4 feet wide on the bottom, with slopes
generally | to 1, and a depth sufficient to give 2 feet cover. This
required the removal of 90,334 cubic yards of earth, 71,336 cubic
yards loose rock and 21,416 cubic yards of solid rock.

RESERVOIRS.

The South Fork reservoir is located on the South Fork of
Divide. Creek, 18J miles from the City, at an elevation of 6176 above
sea level. It has a capacity of 13,471,000 gallons. It is supplied
by the flow of the creek and pumping from the Big Hole River.

The reservoir is formed by a dam 35 feet high and 330 feet
long. The area to be covered by the dam and reservoir was stripped

NEW WORKS OF THE BUTTE WATER COMPANY.

149

> _

Pi

H

p

ISO ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

to the gravel, and on the site of the dam a core pit was excavated
to a depth of 30 feet below the original bed of the stream and well
into the bed rock. In this pit a concrete core wall was built. This
is 3 feet wide from the bottom up to the level of the original surface,
and battering to 18 inches at the top, which is 1 foot above high
water in the reservoir. Concrete was mixed by hand in the pro-
portions of 1 barrel Portland cement to 14 cubic feet of sand and
28 cubic feet of broken stone. The up-stream side of the wall was
plastered with cement mortar mixed 2 to 1. The dam is 16 feet
wide on the top, with slopes of 2 to 1 on each side. The top is
6 feet above the water line. Very little good material could be
found in the vicinity of the dam. The best obtainable was a mixture
of sand and gravel with a good many stones ranging in size from
coarse gravel to several cubic feet. This was found in the bottom
of the reservoir below the muck. It was of a somewhat clayey
nature, and by throwing out the large stones a fairly good material
was secured. The quantity was only sufficient to put on the water
face about 3 feet in thickness. The remainder of the embankment
is composed of disintegrated granite. All material was wet, and
rolled with a heavy grooved roller or rammed by hand. The water
face was paved with irregular-shaped granite boulders 12 inches in
thickness. A concrete gate and screen chamber is located at the
foot of the slope on the water side. It has two openings at different
elevations, controlled by sluice gates. A 24-inch cast iron outlet
pipe and an 8-inch drain pipe are laid from the gate chamber
through the dam. They are encased in concrete which rests on the
undisturbed earth. A steel bridge, 60 feet long, connects the gate
chamber with the top of the dam. An overflow or waste weir 20
feet wide and 6 feet deep is provided at the north end of the dam.
There is also a diverting ditch having a capacity of about three
times the greatest observed flow of the stream, with gates so ar-
ranged that the stream may be diverted and carried around the
reservoir. During construction the stream was carried around the
reservoir in this ditch.

Several small springs were found in excavating for the core
pit. A weir was put in and the flow measured before filling the
reservoir. No increase has been observed since.

The quantities on this work are as follows :

43,658 cubic yards earthwork.

3143 cubic yards loose rock excavation.

3166 cubic yards solid rock excavation.

1478 cubic yards concrete.

NEW WORKS OF THE BUTTE WATER COMPANY. 151

WEST SIDE RESERVOIR.

The West Side reservoir is located near the head of Excelsior
street in Butte. In shape it is irregular, about 180 feet in average
width by 800 feet in length. The ground slopes to the South from
6 to 10 feet to 100. The northerly side of the reservoir follows
approximately the contour of the hillside at elevation 5962. At
each end and on the south side a concrete wall and earth embank-
ment are built. The shape was determined somewhat by the
character of the material. As far as practicable solid rock excava-
tion was avoided.

From contour 5962 on the north side the ground was excavated
to a slope of 2 to 1 down to the bottom plane. The material ex-
cavated was placed against the outside of the wall, forming an
embankment 25 feet wide on top, with a slope of 1.5 to 1. The
excess, above what was required for this, was deposited in waste
banks. The concrete wall is 2.\ feet thick on top, and has
a batter of 2\ inches per foot on the water side and 1
inch per foot on the outside face. The maximum depth of
water is 19 feet. The bottom and sloping portions of the sides are
lined with concrete 12 inches thick on the bottom and 6 inches at
the top of the slope. The concrete was mixed, in proportions of 1
ban el cement to 14 cubic feet of sand and 28 cubic feet of broken
slag, by a Cockburn machine mixer, and run to the work in cars.
That for the walls was dumped into place directly from a track
laid on top of the forms. 0.83 of one barrel of cement made 1 cubic
yard of concrete in place, two expansion joints were made in the
wall. They are vertical transverse joints, with soaped faces to
prevent adhesion and a cut-off wall of clay to prevent the passage
of water. The bottom lining was divided into 20 feet squares by
strips of boards tapering from f inch to \ inch in thickness for
convenience in removing. After the cement had become dry the
boards were removed and the joints filled with a mixture of
Alcatraz asphalt and lime dust run in hot.

The top of the wall has a coping of sandstone 6 inches thick
and 30 inches wide. A 6-inch curbing of concrete is set at the top
of the slope on the north side.

The inlet chamber is on the west end of the reservoir. Water
is discharged over a weir. A 24-inch gate valve and a 24-inch
regulating valve are set in the chamber, the arrangement being like
that of the regulating chambers on the pipe line, except that the
float operating the valve is placed in a tank connected by a pipe with
the reservoir and does not act until the reservoir is full. It then
closes the valve completely. As soon as the water in the reservoir

152 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

drops below elevation 5960, and ceases to supply the tank, water in
the latter drains out and the valve is again opened. There are two
14-inch outlets and an overflow at the east end. A 14-inch pipe is
laid along the foot of slope of the embarkment, connecting the
24-inch main with the outlet pipes. Another connection, by a
10-inch pipe, is made with the City system at a lower elevation
under about 350 feet head.

The construction of this reservoir required the excavation of:

4607 cubic yards of solid rock.

1528 cubic yards of loose rock.

36,290 cubic yards of earth.

In the lining and walls there are 9080 cubic yards of concrete.
The cement used was of the Lehigh brand.

HIGH SERVICE RESERVOIR.

A reservoir of the same general construction as the West Side
reservoir was built in Walkerville to supply the districts lying above
the level of the latter. It has a capacity of 3,255,000 gallons. The
water surface is at elevation 6253.

THE BIG HOLE PUMPING STATION.

The Big Hole pumping station is located about 2\ miles from
Divide station, on the Oregon Short Line Railway. The building
is of brick, 85 feet by 102 feet. Four Sterling water-tube boilers,
of 300 horse power each, have been installed. Also one duplex
triple-expansion pumping engine manufactured by the Jeanesville
Iron Works Company, of Jeanesville, Pa., having a capacity of
1,500,000 gallons in 24 hours, and a guaranteed duty of 75,000,000.

A high-duty pumping engine is now being erected. This en-
gine is of the Horizontal direct-acting crank and flywheel type,
the steam end of which is a Nordberg triple-expansion Corliss
engine, with cranks coupled at 120 degrees to a common shaft.
The pumps are located back of and in line with the steam cylinders.
The plungers are connected to and driven by the extended steam
piston rods. The diameters of the steam cylinders are 24, 44 and 62
inches. The diameter of the water plungers is 9 inches and the
stroke is 52 inches.

The pumps are double-acting and of the outside-packed-
plunger type. The air pump, boiler feed pump and jacket drain
pump are operated by means of a rock shaft and levers attached
to the connecting rod of the low pressure engine. The engine has
a guaranteed duty of 135,000,000 foot pounds per 1,000,000 British

NEW WORKS OF THE BUTTE WATER COMPANY. 153

thermal units, when running 300 feet per minute with 150 pounds
initial steam pressure, 3 pounds absolute back pressure and pump-
ing 4,000,000 gallons per 24 hours, against a hydraulic head of
840 feet.

The boilers are connected to a self-supporting steel stack 8
feet 9 inches in diameter and 151 feet high. Water is taken from
wells and tunnels beside the river, and from the river when neces-
sary.

HIGH SERVICE PUMPING STATION.

A new brick pumping station, 38 feet by 72 feet, has been built
at the West Side reservoir and two Worthington pumps and two
boilers installed. The machinery and boilers were taken from
pumping stations in the city, now abandoned. The plant supplies
the High Service reservoir through a 12-inch main.

In conclusion .two features of special interest may be again
mentioned : First, the great head against which the pumps work
at the Big Hole station.

From low water in the river to the level of the inlet chamber
at the South Fork reservoir, the lift is 787 feet. The addition of
the friction head, for the full capacity of the line, gives 840 feet as
the total dynamic head. This pressure, while not unusual for
mining or oil-line pumps, is greater than can be found in any water
works plant of equal capacity, with which the writer is acquainted.

The second interesting feature is the fact that the water is
taken from a stream flowing into the Gulf of Mexico, carried across
the crest of the continent and delivered on the banks of a tributary
to the Pacific.

The work above described has been in charge of the writer as
constructing engineer, under the direction of Mr. Eugene Carroll,
chief engineer. The pipe line has been largely under the immediate
supervision of Mr. C. D. Vail, principal assistant. The trenching
and reservoir work was done by Winters, Parsons & Boomer,
contractors, of Butte. The steel pipe was manufactured and laid
by the Wolff & Zwicker Iron Works, of Portland, Ore. The
wooden pipe was built by the Excelsior Wooden Pipe Company,
of San Francisco, Cal.

154 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

AN HAWAIIAN SUGAR PLANTATION.

By Charles W. Goodale, Member Montana Society of Engineers.

[Read before the Society, January 10, 1902.*]

A visit to the Hawaiian Islands in the summer of 1901 gave
me an opportunity to see extensive irrigating operations in the
cultivation of sugar cane, and the following notes may be of interest
to the members of the Society.

It may be a surprise to many that irrigation is necessary at all
in these tropical islands, and in certain districts the precipitation of
moisture is certainly abundant enough. At Hilo, for instance, the
principal town on the largest island of the group, Hawaii, it has
been said that "rain falls forty days in the month" ; but, while irri-
gation is not required in this and other districts on the windward
side of the islands, the western or leeward slopes frequently suffer
from drought.

The development of these leeward lands had received very
little attention before the annexation of the group to the United
States, for the reason that capital was not inclined to invest in the
pumps and other machinery necessary for irrigating while there was
any danger of a duty being placed on Hawaiian sugar ; but, after an-
nexation, large tracts of undeveloped land were secured by planta-
tion companies, either under long-term leases or by purchase, and
enterprises requiring the outlay of considerable capital were in-
augurated.

On the western side of the island of Oahu, and distant from
Honolulu about 50 miles on the Oahu Railway, is the plantation of
the Waialua Agricultural Company, and this will be described in
some detail. -

The amount of land included in the property is about 10,000
acres, extending from very near tide water to a height of 600 feet
above the sea. It has been found that the cane crop, under con-
ditions existing at the islands, takes about 10,000 gallons of water
per acre, and this plantation must, therefore, make sure of a supply
of about 100,000,000 gallons per day. The available streams fur-
nish only about 30,000,000 gallons per day during the summer, and
it is, therefore, necessary to provide 70,000,000 gallons from other
sources. As the land is built up of successive lava flows, inclining
slightly toward the sea, and as these flows vary in character from
hard, compact lava to what might be called cinder beds, artesian
wells near the sea have given copious supplies of water, and nearly

^Manuscript received October 6, 1902.— Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

AN HAWAIIAN SUGAR PLANTATION. 155

all the amount mentioned above (70,000,000 gallons per day) is
obtained from about fifty 12-inch wells. It should be explained
that the mountain slopes are very much broken by deep ravines
and, therefore, the rain-fall, which is abundant in the high moun-
tains, readily finds its way into the porous or open strata ; and
these, when tapped by wells, give the needed water supply.

The plantation has six pumping stations, equipped as follows :

Station No. 1. — Duplex double Riedler pump, made by Fraser
& Chalmers ; maximum capacity, 4370 gallons per minute, or over
6,000,000 gallons per 24 hours, to a height of 156 feet. The water
for this station is taken from three 12-inch wells 320 feet deep, and
the discharge is pumped through 3720 feet of 20-inch pipe. Bab-
cock & Wilcox boilers.

Station No. 2. — Duplex double Riedler pump, Fraser & Chal-
mers ; maximum capacity, 6944 gallons per minute, or nearly 10,-
000,000 gallons per 24 hours, to height of 250 feet. The water for
this station is taken from seven wells 320 feet deep ; 4100 feet of
30-inch discharge pipe. Babcock & Wilcox boilers.

Station No. j. — Two triplex double Riedler pumps, Fraser &
Chalmers; maximum capacity, 7500 and 6160 gallons per minute,
or 10,800,000 and 8,870,000 gallons per 24 hours, to a height of
340 and 550 feet. The water for this station is taken from eleven
wells, averaging 357 feet deep, with 4200 feet of 28-inch pipe and
8700 feet of 26-inch pipe to carry the discharge of these two pumps
to the proper elevation. The boilers are of the Sederholm type,
300 horse power each and a Greene Economizer is installed in con-
nection with the boilers.

In order to place the pumps at an elevation that would make
it easier for them to draw water from the wells, an excavation 47
feet deep. 75 feet wide and 78^ feet long was made, representing
a removal of 12,000 cubic yards; and the walls, made of lava rock,
required 6000 cubic yards of masonry, including the foundations of
the pumps.

The equipment is thoroughly up to date in all particulars, the
plant having been designed by Mr. H. A. Allen, of Fraser & Chal-
mers.

This station is located in a deep ravine. The object in selecting
this site was to save in length of pipe line required to reach the
desired elevation and, of course, to have as little friction as possible.
By going down nearly three-quarters of a mile nearer the sea, a
depth of 20 feet in excavation could have been saved, but the
length of the pipe lines would have been increased by 3200 feet.
From the bottom of the excavation, tunnels run out into the sur-

156 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

rounding rock, and the wells are reached by pipe lines through
these tunnels.

The cost of well boring averaged $6 per foot on contract, and
the tunnels were paid for at the rate of $2.75 per cubic yard, the
contractors removing and hoisting out their own excavated material.
The rock did not, however, require blasting.

Station No. 4.— Two Duplex double Riedler pumps ; one of a
capacity of 6944 gallons per minute, or nearly 10,000,000 gallons
per 24 hours, to a height of 370 feet; the other throwing 3850
gallons per minute, or nearly 5,500,000 gallons per 24 hours to a
height of 220 feet ; also one triplex double Riedler pump, of a
capacity of 5600 gallons per minute, or about 8,000,000 gallons
per 24 hours, to a height of 550 feet.

The water for this station is taken from a pond which is sup-
plied by springs, and from flowing artesian wells, fourteen in num-
ber. The water rises in these wells to 4 feet above sea level, the
station being located about one-half mile from the beach. One
well is only 16 feet deep, while the others range from 40 to 52 feet
in depth, except in one case where a well was drilled to a depth of
420 feet. This was driven for prospecting purposes, to see whether
great depths would give additional flow. For the first 47 feet, it
was through hard rock ; it then struck cinder or softer rock. At
87 feet a flow of salt water was encountered. By casing up the
well down through this layer of rock carrying salt water and allow-
ing the casing to project above the top of the well, the salt water
was prevented from mixing with the fresh.

It should be stated that the wells that furnish this supply are
all somewhat brackish, but not sufficiently impure to injure the
water for irrigating purposes.

This station has 6260 feet of 30-inch discharge pipe, 2280 feet
of 20-inch discharge pipe and 9200 feet of pipe 26 inches in
diameter. Babcock & Wilcox Boilers.

Station No. 5. — Two duplex cross-compound pumps, made
by the Risdon Iron Works, having a capacity of 2080 and 2777
gallons per minute, or 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 per 24 hours, to a
height of 70 and 75 feet.

The water comes from seven 12-inch artesian wells and one 8-
inch well, the depth being from 470 to 570 feet. There are two
discharge pipe lines of 2140 feet each ; one 16 inches in diameter, the
other 20 inches in diameter. Babcock & Wilcox Boilers.

Pumping Plant at Mill. — One duplex double Riedler pump,
Fraser & Chalmers, of a capacity of 3480 gallons per minute, or
5,000,000 gallons per 24 hours, to a height of no feet.

AN HAWAIIAN SUGAR PLANTATION. 157

These several pumping plants, all being covered with steel
buildings, represent, completed, an expenditure of over $1,250,000.

The equipment of the plantation also includes a sugar mill,
capable of handling 1200 tons of sugar cane per day, the cost of
which was about $600,000. The mill building, which is of steel
construction, includes one room 240 feet x 90 feet and another one
180 feet x 90 feet. The power is obtained from a 30-inch x 60-inch
Hamilton-Corliss engine, the exhaust from which is used in boiling
the juice.

In order to handle the cane economically quite an extensive
railroad system is required. This includes 32 miles of permanent
track, gauge 36 inches, 25 miles of which have 35-pound rail, and
the balance 25 pounds, and 8 miles of portable track, 20-pound
rail. In the rolling stock are three Baldwin locomotives, Class 8,
weighing 42,000 pounds each ; also two others of smaller size ;
also 550 four-wheel cane cars, weighing 2600 pounds light and
having a capacity of 5 tons.

The plowing is done by steam, two road wagons being em-
ployed, one at each side of the field, to drag the plow across. The
steam-plow equipment includes five pairs of road engines with
reels, and the cost of this machinery was about $100,000.

The coal supply is obtained from Australia and from the
Roslyn mines in Washington, and costs from $6 to $7 per ton in
Honolulu, or nearly $9 delivered at the steam plants.

JAMES SPIERS.

Member Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only t
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.

As

SOCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Organized 1881.

Vol. XXIX. NOVEMBER, 1902. No. 5.

1- _

This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any .Society or for
the statements or opinions of members of the Societies.

THE ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSA-
CHUSETTS.

By Edmund K. Turner, Member Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

[Read before the Society, October 22, 1902.*]
In the early days of railroad construction in this country but
little attention was paid to the avoidance of crossings at grade of
railroads with public highways. Both railroad and public way fol-
lowed the natural surface of the ground as closely as possible, in
order to avoid expensive works of construction.

The territory through which the railroads were built, unlike that
in the older and more thickly populated countries, was in most in-
stances sparsely settled, and, as far as could then be seen, the ques-
tion of crossing at grade was of little importance. At that time,
also, the amount of money applicable to the construction and
equipment of the new means of transportation was very limited.
It was difficult to raise money for the absolute needs of construc-
tion, without considering any features that would add to the cost
and could be dispensed with for the time being. To have provided
for the avoidance of grade crossings would in many, perhaps most,
instances have prevented or postponed for a long time the construc-
tion of the railroads. This question was therefore passed over for
the time.

Little was known or could then be foreseen of the amount of
business or number of trains to be expected on the railroads. The
building and operation of railroads was a new business. No ex-
perience or precedents existed from which definite ideas as to the
probable results could be formed, and there was but little to indicate
the proportions to which the business of the country would grow
within a comparatively short time, and of the increased require-

*Manuscript received November 20, 1902. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
14

i Go ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

ments relative to the transportation and movements of both persons
and property which such growth would bring about. One of the
most important elements in causing this growth of business being
the improved methods of transportation then introduced by the con-
struction and operation of railroads.

During the first few years after the introduction of railroads
the conditions remained without much change. There were few
trains on the railroads and but little travel upon the public ways ;
consequently, but few accidents at grade crossings and but little
to call attention to them. Possibly people using the public ways
were more careful and had not become used to taking chances in
crossing the railroad tracks. All movements were made in a more
deliberate way. The trains were light and were run at a low speed ;
consequently, were more easily kept under control.

In 1835, when the first railroads carrying passengers in Massa-
chusetts were finished and opened for travel, the population of the
State was 670,000. In 1895 the population had increased to 2,500,-
000. The transportation needs, per inhabitant, had also increased
in a proportion even greater.

With the increase in population and in the necessity for larger
transportation facilities the danger at grade crossings became
greater. More people used the public ways. The trains became
more frequent, faster and heavier. In consequence of these changes
the number of accidents at grade crossings increased, and the ques-
tion of preventing the construction of more grade crossings and of
protecting or abolishing those already existing became of sufficient
importance to attract public attention. Alt first the protection by
flagmen or gates of those persons moving along the public ways
seemed sufficient, and for a time answered the purpose, but, with
the great increase in travel, accidents at protected crossings be-
came frequent, the danger to persons traveling on both highway
and railway became greater, and the question of the abolition of
grade crossings took shape.

In 1869 the Massachusetts Legislature passed an Act pro-
viding for the appointment of a railroad commission, to consist of
three members, to be appointed by the Governor and to hold office
for a term of three years. This commission has exerted a very
powerful influence in all movements toward safer and better
methods of construction and operation of railroads. At an early
period in the existence of the board it took up the subject of grade
crossings and made recommendations for the passage of laws on
that subject, which have been strong factors in bringing the grade-
crossing question to its present condition.

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 161

The mileage of railroads in Massachusetts in proportion to the
area of the State was, at the time the commission was established,
quite large as compared with other States, or even with more
thickly populated countries, as shown by the following table :

TABLE I.
Miles of Railroad to Square Miles of Territory in 1869.

Massachusetts, 1 mile to 5.47 square miles.

New York, 1 mile to 14.12 "

United States, 1 mile to 46.73 "

Great Britain, 1 mile to 8.60 " "

In dealing with nearly all of the measures brought forward
for the safety and convenience of the public, the railroad companies
also have given their help. In very few instances have they offered
serious obstruction.

In the first report of the Railroad Commission, the following
statement regarding grade crossings appears :

"The control of this matter rests with the County Commis-
sioners, but the Board will take the liberty to suggest that in future
crossings at grade should not be allowed when it is possible to avoid
them, and all roads should be carried over or under the railroad
where it can be done. Some of the existing crossings might now
be changed to bridges at no very great expense, and the Com-
missioners suggest to railroad companies the propriety of such
changes on all the principal lines."

For several years the Railroad Commissioners called attention
in their reports to the increasing number of accidents at grade
crossings, and urged the Legislature to take action to prevent in-
crease in the number of such crossings and to enter upon some
policy for the gradual elimination of those already existing.

In 1882 the Legislature included in the statutes the General
Railroad Laws (Public Statutes, Chapter 112), which embraced
in its provisions one forbidding the making of new ways across at
the same grade with existing railroads, or the laying out of rail-
roads at the same grade across existing public ways, without first
obtaining the consent in writing of the Railroad Commissioners,
and, in most cases, that of the County Commissioners also. Since
that date comparatively few new crossings at grade have been made,
it being necessary to prove beyond question that such a course was
absolutely necessary before the consent of the Boards could be
obtained.

The prevention of new crossings having been thus provided
for, the movement for the abolition of grade crossings already ex-

162 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

isting was continued, various measures having this object in view
being introduced into the Legislature.

Meanwhile, many of the railroads were doing something toward
the abolition of their crossings. As an example, the Fitchburg
Railroad and its leased lines, with which the writer was at that
time connected, between 1875 and 1890, got rid of twenty-five grade
crossings. Some of these changes were made by alterations of
grade, carrying public ways over or under the railroads ; some by
combining two or more crossings into one by building connecting
pieces of public ways and a few by discontinuing ways which had
become useless.

The above noted changes were made by agreement with the
city or town authorities and with the approval in all cases of the
Commissioners of the County in which the crossings were situated.
The County Commissioners in all of these cases gave great assist-
ance in arranging the preliminary agreements and in carrying out
the work. The cost of making these alterations was in some cases
borne entirely by the railroad company ; in some a division of ex-
pense between the city or town and the company was agreed upon,
but in none of these cases did the State contribute anything toward
the cost.

The total number of grade crossings in Massachusetts, as shown
in the reports of the Railroad Commission for each year from 1873
to 1901, also the number protected by gates or flagmen, the number
not so protected, the miles of railroad and the ratio of crossings
to miles of railroad, is shown in the following table :

Number
of
Year. Crossings.

1873 2,228

1874 2,436

1875 2,660

1876 2,774

1877 2,776

1878 2,245

1879 2,151

1880 2,137

1881 2,155

1882 2,151

1883 2,143

1884 2,128

1885 2,Il8

1886 2,138

1887 2,128

1888 2,239

TABLE II.

Number

Protected.

Unprotected.

Miles.

Mile.

376

1,842

1,657.9

1-34

446

1,990

1,734-9

I.40

526

2,134

1,782.5

I.50

607

2,167

1,816.7

1.52

S69

2,207

1,837-4

I-5I

460

1,785

1,850.0

I.2I

491

I,66o

1,861.8

I.l6

533

1,604

1,893-1

1. 12

567

1,588

1,927.9

I. II

615 •

1,536

i,949-5

I. IO

651

1,492

1,953-5

I. IO

677

1,451

1,973-7

I.08

706

1,412

1,981.7

I.07

738

1,400

i,989-5

1.07

765

1,363

2,018.3

I.OS

855

1,374

2,063.9

I.08

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 163

Number Number

of per

Year. Crossings. Protected. Unprotected. Miles. Mile.

1889 2,2l8 922 1,296 2,066.8 1.07

1890 2,234 956 1,278 2,088.9 io7

1891 2,219 978 1,241 2,086.9 i-o6

1892 2,216 993 1,223 2,094.9 1.06

1893 2,178 968 1,210 2,119.5 io3

1894 2,173 1,08s 1,088 2,118.1 1.02

1895 2,192 1,112 1,080 2,114.4 1.03

1897 2,155 1,154 I,OOI 2,113.3 1-02

1898 2,103 1,147 958 2,101.9 1.00

1899 2,070 1,136 934 2,107.6 .98

1000 2,052 1,136 916 2,108.5 .97

1901 2,022 1,135 887 2,108.9 -96

1902 2,001 1,139 862 2,107.5 -95

The years given are as noted in the reports of the Railroad
Commission. The notation was changed in 1897, leaving 1896
with no report.

From the above table it will be seen that during the earlier
years noted there was a rapid increase in the number of grade
crossings, due to the increase in mileage of railroads then taking
place, and to the fact that at that time less restraint was exercised
to prevent the establishment of such crossings on the new railroads
then being built than has been the case in more recent years.

It will also be noted that the number of crossings in proportion
to the miles of railroad is very large, being over one crossing to
each mile of railroad, showing that the mileage of public ways in
the Commonwealth is liberal.

Inspection of this table also shows some interesting features
regarding the growth of the railroad systems of the State. Up to

1890 there was a constant and considerable increase in the total
mileage. Since that date the gain in any year, as well as the total
gain, has been small. The five years 1893-1898 show a small loss
each year. The greater part of this loss is accounted for by the
fact that some short railroads were discontinued and the tracks
taken up.

It is also to be noted that the number of grade crossings in-
creased very fast during the early part ot the period covered, with
quite a diminution between 1877 and 1885.

It is probable that, in the earlier years noted, the entire number
of crossings on the railroads reporting was given, while during
later years only those in Massachusetts were so reported. Private
crossings also were in some cases included in the report, which,
upon more careful examination, were afterwards excluded.

164 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The table also shows that' a very considerable increase in the
proportion of crossings protected by gates or flagmen, or both, has
taken place.

The proportion of crossings which are guarded to the whole

number of existing crossings, at five-year intervals, is shown in the

following table :

TABLE III.

1875 20 per cent.

1880 25

1885 33

1890 42

1895 50

1899 54

1902 56

But statistics show that the protection furnished does not pre-
vent an increase in the number of accidents at crossings, as is shown
by the following figures :

TABLE IV.

Year. Casualties. Killed. Injured.

1874 7 5 2

1884 38

1894 65 19 46

I900 56 24 , 32

I902 44 25 19

The character of protection furnished does not prevent persons
so disposed from passing onto the track in front of trains. It may,
and generally does, provide warning, which, if reasonably heeded,
would prevent accident, but the impatience of many, when restraint
is offered to their movement in any way that their impulse suggests,
prevents them from taking advantage of the safeguards which are
provided.

There is also another source of danger from grade crossings,
especially those not protected. Such crossings invite travel along
the tracks from one crossing to another, which results in many ac-
cidents to persons. It has been found difficult, or, it might almost
be said, impossible, by the railroad companies to prevent such
travel, although clearly an act of trespass. The abolition of grade
crossings and proper fencing of the approaches to ways under or
over the tracks stops to a considerable degree such unauthorized
travel along the railroad tracks.

In 1885 an Act was passed (Chapter 194), entitled "An Act to
Promote the Abolition of Grade Crossings by Railroads and High-
ways," among its provisions the following :

"County Commissioners may act on receipt of petition from
not less than twenty legal voters of the County wherein the crossing

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 165

is situated. Thirty days' notice of hearing to be given. The cost
in the opinion of the County Commissioners not to exceed three
thousand dollars. Not to be carried out if a special commission
appointed by the Superior Court believes that the cost will exceed
six thousand dollars, in which case the special commission annuls
the action of the County Commissioners."

The next decisive step toward the abolition of grade crossings
was taken in 1888. In that year the Legislature, by Chapter 99,
resolved :

''That the Governor, with the advice and consent of the Coun-
cil, be authorized to appoint three competent and experienced civil
engineers, who shall investigate and report in print to the next
General Court, on or before the first day of February, eighteen
hundred and eighty -nine, upon the subject of the gradual abolition
of the crossing of highways by railroads at grade, with such sug-
gestions and recommendations as to the best methods of accomplish-
ing such abolition as shall seem to them expedient. Such engineers
shall include in their report recommendations as to the methods of
apportioning costs and the payment of damages occasioned when
such crossings are abolished. Said engineers shall have power to
employ such clerical and other assistance as may be necessary for
carrying out the objects of this resolve, and the engineers shall
receive such compensation for their services as the Governor and
Council may determine : provided, however, that the whole amount
expended under the provisions of this resolve shall not exceed ten
thousand dollars, and the terms of office of said engineers shall not
extend beyond the first day of February, eighteen hundred and
eighty-nine."

In accordance with the terms of the resolve, three engineers
were appointed on the nth of the next July— Augustus W. Locke,
William O. Webber and George A. Kimball.

Personal examination of every grade crossing in the State was
made by one or more members of the Board, and information re-
garding crossings was obtained from the railroad companies and
from the cities and towns.

From the report of the engineers it appears that there were
then in the State 2267 highways crossing railroads at grade, 1475 of
them unprotected, 792 protected ; 470 public ways crossing over-
head railways and 278 crossing underneath, — a slight discrepancy
between these and the figures in Table II from the Railroad Com-
missioners' report, probably due to a more careful count for the
special commission.

Nearly all of these grade crossings were established when the
railroads were built. The crossings per mile on the various rail-
roads were as follows :

166 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

TABLE V.

Boston and Lowell, 1835

Boston and Albany, 1835

Fitchburg, 1848

Old Colony

New York and New England

Boston and Maine

Eastern

Boston and Providence

Central Massachusetts

1 to 3.70

miles

I " 1.16

(i

I " .79

«

I " .99

u

1 " 1.66

(<

1 " .80

li

1 " .68

a

1 " 1.19

tt

1 " 1.09

a

Between January 1, 1879, and January 1, 1889, grade crossings
in Massachusetts were abolished as follows :

TABLE VI.

Boston and Albany 15

Central Vermont 2

Connecticut River ' 5

New York and New England 1

Old Colony 21

New York, New Haven and Hartford 3

Fitchburg 23

Providence and Worcester 5

The Board of Engineers collected much valuable information
as to the cost of abolition of crossings already accomplished, and
made estimates of the probable cost of abolishing all of the cross-
ings at that time existing in the State.

The Board divided the crossings into seven classes, according
to the estimated cost, as follows :

TABLE VII.

Class. Number. Cost. Total.

i 1,068 $7,000 $7,476,000

2 713 12,000 8,SS6,000

3 243 18,000 4,374,000

4 34 5O,O0O 1,700,000

5 164 90,000 14,760,000

6 22 150,000 3,300,000

7 3 200,000 600,000

Grand total $40,766,000

There were found crossings, about twenty in number, where the
expense of abolishing them would be out of reasonable proportion
to the benefits received ; therefore, no estimate of the cost was made
for these.

The Railroad Commissioners, in their 1884 report, estimated
the total cost of abolishing all grade crossings in cities and in
the populous parts of towns at one hundred millions of dollars,

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 167

which, from the experience of the past ten years, seems nearer the
probable actual cost than the estimate of the Board of Engineers.

Some interesting computations were made by the Board of
Engineers as to the value of time lost at various crossings by the
detention of persons and teams.

One in Lynn, loss per day, $35.

One in Charlestown, loss per day, $50.

One in Roxbury, loss per day, $12.

These figures, while interesting in connection with this subject,
could not be used in arriving at a basis for the apportionment of
cost among the parties interested in abolishing any particular
crossing.

Regarding the apportionment of cost, the Board of Engineers
recommended as follows :

"But if the custom of employing a special commission to ap-
portion the cost be kept up, we would suggest that it should be
made permanent to that extent that the same persons should be
called in all cases, in order that whatever experience is gained from
year to year may be utilized."

The final summing up of the question of dividing the expense
was made by the Board of Engineers as follows:

"Finally, we think that the expense of abolishing crossings
should be generally divided between the railroad and the city or
town, bringing in the county in special cases, and also the street
railways and adjoining estates if they are benefited.

"But we do not consider it practicable for the Legislature to
fix in advance the proportions to be paid by the parties interested,
for the reason that in no two places that have so far come under our
observation have the benefits or the disadvantages been equally di-
vided. We would recommend that each one be divided on its own
merits by some tribunal such as we have hereinbefore suggested."

The Board of Engineers made its report, as directed by the
Legislature, under date of January 31, 1889.

Beside the general treatment of the subject and the recom-
mendation as to the policy to be pursued, quite a number of special
cases were considered and worked out with considerable detail by
the Board of Engineers. Several of the crossings so considered
have been abolished under the provisions of the law of 1890, fol-
lowing quite closely the recommendation of the Board of Engineers.

The consideration of the subject of the abolition of grade cross-
ings which led to the appointment of the Board of Engineers was
continued after their report was made, and, governed somewhat by
the suggestions and recommendations made during several years
by the Railroad Commissioners and by the recommendations of the

168 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Board of Engineers, the Legislature in 1890 passed an Act entitled
"An Act to Promote the Abolition of Grade Crossings."

Several laws had been passed at earlier dates, under the pro-
visions of which grade crossings could be abolished, but they were
not calculated to encourage the movement on a sufficiently large
scale to reach the results which were by this time demanded.

Passing over the earlier laws noted, it will be seen that in the
year 1890 the Commonwealth adopted the policy of a gradual gen-
eral abolition of the existing grade crossings, with a division of
the expense between the State, the city or town in which the cross-
ing is situated and the railroad company. The Legislature appro-
priated five millions of dollars for this purpose, to be spent in ten
years, the amount expended not to exceed five hundred thousand
dollars in any one year.

The main features of the Act of 1890, Chapter 428, condensed,
are as follows :

The Mayor and aldermen of a city or the selectmen of a town
in which a public way and a railroad cross each other at grade, or
the directors of the railroad company (also the Attorney-General
instructed by the Governor and Council after notice to the inter-
ested parties and a hearing), may petition the Superior Court or
any justice thereof, After notice by public advertisement or other-
wise, and a hearing, the court may at its discretion appoint a com-
mission of three disinterested persons.

A petition may embrace several crossings or several petitions
may be consolidated and heard as one.

The commission shall meet as soon as may be. If the com-
mission decides that alterations are necessary for the security and
convenience of the public, it shall prescribe the manner and limits
within which alterations shall be made and shall determine which
party shall do the work, or shall apportion the work to be done be-
tween the railroad company and the city or town.

The railroad company shall pay sixty-five per cent, of the total
actual cost of the alterations, including the cost of hearings and the
compensation of the commissioners and auditor for their services
and all damages sustained by any person in his property or for land ;
thirty-five per cent to be apportioned between the Commonwealth
and the city or town in which the crossing is situated ; providing,
however, that not more than ten per cent, shall be apportioned to
the city or town.

If the commission decides that any portion of an existing public
way should be discontinued, it shall so specify. It shall further
specify the grades for the railroad and public ways and the general

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 169

method of construction ; also what land or other property it deems
necessary to be taken ; provided, however, that if such decision in-
volves a change in the grade of a railroad, the approval in writing
of the directors of the railroad shall first be obtained. This pro-
vision was afterwards changed, making it necessary to obtain the
approval of the Railroad Commission instead of the directors of the
railroad.

The commission shall return its decision into the Superior
Court. The decree of the court confirming the decision of the com-
mission shall be final and binding.

The Act provides for taking land and prescribes the process to
be followed ; also for the recovery for damages sustained by any
person in his property or for land taken and for taking land by the
city or town or railroad company.

After the completion of the work, the crossing and its ap-
proaches shall be maintained and kept in repair as follows :

When the public way crosses the railroad by an overhead
bridge, the framework of the bridge and its abutments shall be
maintained and kept in repair by the railroad company, and the
surface of the bridge and its approaches shall be maintained and
kept in repair by the town or city in which the same are situated.
When the public way passes under the railroad, the bridge and its
abutments shall be maintained and kept in repair by the railroad
company, and the public way and its approaches shall be maintained
and kept in repair by the city or town in which they are situated.

The court shall appoint an auditor, who shall be a disinterested
person, not an inhabitant of the city or town in which the crossing
is situated, to whom shall from time to time be submitted all ac-
counts of expense, whether incurred by the railroad, city or town,
commission or auditor. The auditing, when accepted by the court,
shall be final. The court shall from time to time issue decrees for
payment. The Commonwealth shall pay the proportion appor-
tioned to it and to the city or town. The city or town shall repay
in such annual amounts as the auditor of the Commonwealth may
designate, interest at the rate of four per cent being charged to the
city or town on the amount due.

The Superior Court or any justice thereof sitting in equity in
any county shall have jurisdiction to compel compliance with this
Act and with the decrees, agreements and decisions made there-
under.

If the aldermen of a city or the selectmen of a town and the
directors of a railroad company agree as to the alterations to be
made, the agreement shall have the same force and effect as the

170 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

decree of the court under the provisions of this Act ; provided, that
the Railroad Commissioners, after notice to all parties and a hearing,
approve the alterations set forth in the agreement. In this case
the Commonwealth shall pay twenty per cent, of the cost.

Notice shall be filed by the petitioners with the Railroad Com-
missioners of the entry of any petition under the provisions of this
Act, and in case application shall be made for changes in grade
crossings which will require, in the opinion of said Commissioners,
a larger expenditure in any one year on the part of the Common-
wealth than the amount provided for by this Act, said Railroad
Commissioners shall have full power to decide which, if any, of the
said pending petitions shall be proceeded with during the year, and
no decree shall be entered under any such petition until a certificate
is filed thereon by the Railroad Commissioners that in their judg-
ment the expenditure on the part of the Commonwealth will not
exceed the amount provided for by this Act.

PRACTICAL WORKING.

Regarding the practical working of the Act of 1890, every-
thing has been as favorable as could be expected. At first the num-
ber of applications was small, and it was necessary, to pass other
acts amending and perfecting the details. Some railroad com-
panies have taken the initiative, applying for the abolition of many
grade crossings on their lines. Others have waited for the cities
and towns to take action, meeting them fairly and helping on the
movement. In a very few cases have the companies done anything
to prevent action. As far as the writer has been able to learn from
the records, petitions have originated as shown in the following
table, which does not, however, cover nearly all of the cases :

TABLE. VIII.

Number of
Petitions.

By
Railroad.

By

City or Town.

By City

and Railroad

Jointly.

By
Common-
wealth.

ISO

59

76

15

0

Many of the above noted petitions covered several crossings
each.

The petition is directed to the Superior Court, and can be acted
upon by any justice of this court. The Superior Court has a suffi-
cient number of justices to insure prompt action on business of this
character. The justice to whom the petition is brought, after
proper notice to all parties interested, has a public hearing. If he
decides that further action should be taken and that the petition is
a proper one, he appoints a commission of three disinterested per-

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 171

sons. The usual course in these cases is for the representatives or
counsel of the parties interested to present the names of parties
who would be acceptable to them. If the justice finds these to be
persons whom he believes to be suitable, he appoints them, but he
is not restricted to such names, and may appoint any person at his
discretion. It has been customary to appoint a lawyer, a civil engi-
neer and one other person, but there has been no fixed rule regard-
ing the composition of the commissions.

Under Section 2 of the Act, the court may consolidate several
petitions and order the Commissioners to hear them as one, saving
time and expense to all parties interested in the proceedings, and by
considering the work of alterations of a group of crossings as one
problem and treating them accordingly, enabling the engineers to
plan the changes so that interference or useless work and expense
may be avoided.

By an Act passed in 1891, amending that of 1890, the Com-
mission is authorized to apportion the work to be done and the
sixty-five per cent, of the cost among several railroads where more
than one crosses the public way at or near the same point.

The commissioners are required to meet as soon as may be
after receiving notice of their appointment. Usually notice is sent
by the clerk of court and the members are called together by the
person first named, or whose name stands at the head of the list
as sent out by the clerk of the court. The commission meets and
a time for hearing is determined upon. Notice is given to the prin-
cipals interested and the date is usually fixed at about thirty days
after the time of the first meeting, although in some instances a less
period has been named.

At the hearings before the commission, the city or town and
the railroad company are generally represented by counsel. In the
more important cases the Commonwealth is represented by the
Attorney-General or one of his assistants. Sometimes persons
whose interests are affected are represented by counsel, but more
frequently such persons state their own case and receive the same
treatment as counsel.

In taking testimony and hearing arguments, the practice of the
courts is followed, often with more latitude than the strict adher-
ence to the rules of testimony would admit, the main object being
to get at the facts bearing upon the case in the easiest way and
shortest time.

The first hearing is generally held at some convenient place
as near as possible to the crossings to be considered, so that all per-
sons interested may have an opportunity to be heard. A view of

172 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

the crossings and surroundings is taken at an early stage of the pro-
ceedings, and plans of proposed changes submitted by one or more
parties.

After hearing all parties who appear and desire to be heard,
the commission decides whether alterations are needed for the
security and convenience of the public. If in the negative, the
hearing is closed and the decision reported to the court. In one
case of this kind the Legislature afterward passed an Act requiring
the abolition of the crossing and ordered the court to appoint a
commission to decide as to the manner in which the alterations
should be made.

If the commission decides in the affirmative, the hearing is con-
tinued on the other parts of the subject. First, as to what altera-
tions shall be made, prescribing the manner and limits within which
they shall be made with sufficient detail to fix definitely these ques-
tions and to prevent disputes later when the work is done.

The commission has power to order new public ways to be
built in substitution for those used before, to discontinue portions
of highways, to have the railroad company take land when more is
needed for its alterations, to have the city or town take land where
necessary for its alterations of public ways, to change the grade of
public ways, to change the grade of railroads, the approval of the
Railroad Commissioners having first been obtained.

In case the grade of the railroad is ordered changed, the ap-
proval in writing of the Railroad Commissioners must accompany
the report when it' is presented to the court.

In case land is taken or property damaged, if the parties in
interest cannot agree, the owners can recover compensation by
making application to the Superior Court within one year after
the day of the date of the decree of the court confirming the de-
cision of the commission. A jury will then determine the amount
of damage.

When land is taken, the decree of the court confirming the
decision constitutes a taking of the land. The clerk of courts
must, within thirty days after making the decree, cause a copy of
the decision and decree to be filed with the County Commissioners
and recorded in the registry of deeds of the county in which the
property is situated, also with the Auditor of the Commonwealth.

The commission also determines which party shall do each por-
tion of the work ordered. In practice, to avoid conflict of authority
and, consequently, danger to travel, the railroad company is gener-
ally ordered to do the work, or, in case more than one railroad
company is interested, the commission orders all the work to be

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 173

done by one company or divides it between them, as seems best with
regard to safety and economy.

The commission also apportions the thirty-five per cent, of the
total actual cost between the Commonwealth and the city or town
in which the crossings are situated. The law provides that not
more than ten per cent, shall be apportioned to the city or town,
and ten per cent, is the proportion usually allotted to them, although
in a few instances a smaller proportion has been placed upon them.
The proportion to be paid by the railroad company or companies
is fixed by law at sixty-five per cent.

After hearing and deciding upon the above noted details of
the case, the commission makes its report to the court. The report
is usually accompanied by plans showing in detail the alterations
ordered ; also what land, if any, is to be taken to admit of carrying
out the alterations as ordered. The plans are signed by the commis-
sioners and made part of the report.

Should any of the parties interested be dissatisfied with the
findings and report of the commission, they are heard by the court
before the report is approved. If the report is approved, a decree
of the court is made confirming the report and decision of the com-
mission. The duties of the commission then cease.

The compensation of the commission is not fixed by law, nor
has any rule regarding it been made by the court or otherwise.
Each commission fixes its compensation, subject to approval of
the court.

It would seem from the experience of more than ten years
since the law was passed that the feature of a special commission
for each case or group of cases has been acceptable and has worked
well. It gives an opportunity for the court to select those persons
best fitted to consider and decide each case, and the results have
been as good, probably much better, than would have been reached
if one fixed commission had been constituted to hear and decide all
cases arising under the law.

By the provision of Section 6 of the law, the Legislature es-
tablished a principle for determining the manner in which the public
ways and structures as altered shall be afterward maintained. If
the way crosses the railroad by an overhead bridge, the framework
of the bridge and its abutments shall be maintained and kept in
repair by the railroad company, and the surface of the bridge and its
approaches shall be maintained and kept in repair by the town or
city in which the same is situated. When the public way passes
under the railroad, the bridge and abutments shall be maintained
and kept in repair by the railroad company, and the public way and

174 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

its approaches shall be maintained and kept in repair by the town
or city in which they are situated. This division of responsibility
and cost of maintenance is on natural lines, and to each party is
assigned that portion which it can best inspect or observe and for
which it is best prepared to furnish material and do the work of
maintenance.

The auditor provided for in Section 7 is appointed by the court,
and during the progress of the work, from time to time, examines
the accounts of the parties doing the work and makes return to the
court. Upon the acceptance of the auditor's return, the court issues
its decree to the railway company and Commonwealth for payment
of their proportion of the cost. In case of an objection to any account
presented, the auditor fixes a time for hearing the objection, at
which time witnesses may be examined or testimony bearing upon
the subject taken. Objection may also be made to the court against
the approval of the auditor's returns by either of the parties inter-
ested. The court will hear the cause, and, if the objection is well
founded, may refuse to accept the auditor's report and order the
same changed. An appeal may even be taken to the Supreme
Court.

ADDITIONAL AND AMENDATORY LAWS.'

It has been found necessary since the passage of the Act of
1890 to pass others perfecting and amending it, and to pass some
laws for special cases where the conditions were not the same as
in the majority of cases, and where the provisions of the Act of
1890, if enforced, would work hardship on some of the parties.
The most important of these laws are noted, as follows :

"1891. Chapter 33. Where several railroads are included in
the petition, the commission shall have the same power as is now
provided where there is but one, and may apportion the work
among the railroads and shall equitably apportion the sixty-five per
cent, among the several companies, and shall award the manner and
proportion of each in the maintenance and repair."

"1892. Chapter 178. A city or town may incur debt outside
the legal debt limit to pay for land or property taken."

"1893. Chapter 283. The Commonwealth shall pay in the
first instance the amount apportioned to the city or town, to be re-
paid as the Auditor of the Commonwealth may designate."

"1896. Chapter 439. If in any one year the expenditures by
the Commonwealth shall not' amount to five hundred thousand
dollars, the unexpended balance thereof shall be added to the
amount allowed to be paid during any subsequent year."

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 175

During the five years after the passage of the Act of 1890 the
expenditure did not nearly equal the appropriation, and the balance
was, by the terms of the Act of 1890, not available for the purposes
for which it was intended ; hence the necessity for the amendment
noted above.

The largest amount paid by the Commonwealth in either of the
first five years was $407,491.72, in 1895, and the aggregate for the
five years was $861,892.55.

SPECIAL LAWS.

Some of the most important special laws passed are as follows :

"1892. Chapter 433. Relating to certain crossings on the
Boston and Providence Railroad. In this case it was provided
that the Commonwealth shall pav forty-five per cent, of the ex-
pense. The city to repay to the Commonwealth thirteen and one-
half per cent, of the whole expense."

"1892. Chapter 374. Chelsea bridge over the Boston and
Maine Railroad. Five per cent, of the expense to be paid to the
Boston and Maine Railroad by the street railway company and
thirty per cent, by the Commonwealth. Of this each city, Boston
and Chelsea, shall repay five and four-tenths per cent, of the whole
expense."

This is the first instance in which a street railway company
was by law required to pay a portion of the cost of the abolition
of a grade crossing, and it's proportion in this case was simply the
extra expense incurred in keeping the railway in a safe condition
for operation while the changes were being made.

"1893. Chapter 179. Removed certain crossing in the city
of Worcester from the operation of the grade crossing Acts for
the term of five years."

"1894. Chapter 226. Regarding alterations at Brockton.
The compensation of the commissioners and expense incurred in
surveying, engineering and other matters under their direction to
enable them to make their report shall be part of the expense of
the alterations. The New York, New Haven and Hartford Rail-
road Company shall do the work, and commence the same within
six months after the decree of the court, and prosecute the same to
final completion with reasonable diligence."

"1895. Chapter 233. In the proceedings for the abolition of
grade crossings at Northampton, if the commission decides that it
is necesary for the security or convenience of the public to alter,
re-locate or build anew any passenger station, freight depot or
other necesary structure, or re-locate a freight yard or to provide
new freight yards or other facilities, or to substitute other lands
therefor as incident and made necessary in their judgment by the
abolition of grade crossings .... the commission may pre-
scribe the manner and limits and the limit of cost within which the
same shall be made."

15

176. ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

"1896. Chapter 257. This act provides for alterations in the
towns of Hyde Park and Dedham. The railroad company may
operate branches and its road between Readville and Boston with
electric power.

"Forty-five per cent, of the expense incurred by the railroad
company shall be paid by the Commonwealth.

"The towns of Hyde Park and Dedham shall each repay to the
Commonwealth thirty per cent, of the amount paid by it on account
of expenses incurred in said towns."

"1896. Chapter 535. This Act provides for various changes
at the freight yards of the New England Railroad in South
Boston. The expense .... shall be paid by the rail-
road company, the city of Boston and the Commonwealth in such
proportion as the commissioners shall decide to be just and equit-
able, concerning all of the relations of the parties."

STREET RAILWAYS.

There is one element which has not as yet, except in two in-
stances— the one noted above and one more recent — been brought
into the grade crossing cases as a contributor to the expense ; that
is, the street railway companies. When the law of 1890 was passed,
and, in fact, until several years later, the street railways did not fill
so important a place as they do now. With the application of
electricity to railway traction and the great increase in the number
and mileage of railways, great additional danger has been intro-
duced at the crossings where the railways exist and the necessity
for the separation of grades has been made much more urgent than
when the comparatively small number of horse railways was to be
considered.

The danger of crossing railroad tracks by electric railway
tracks at the same grade has been fully appreciated by the Railroad
Commissioners. No such crossing can be established without their
consent, and they have not given consent without very weighty
reasons. Many projected railways have consequently been obliged
to wait until the public way upon which they were located and to
be built could be carried over or under the railroad. In a few cases
the railways have built bridges over the railroads, with trestle
approaches, at or near the public way, rather than wait for the
abolition of the grade crossing. In quite a number of cases the
Railroad Commission has given consent for the crossing of a rail-
road by a railway at grade for a limited period, fixing a time within
which the abolition of the crossing may reasonably be expected to
be carried out.

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 177

The existence of a railway or the proposed construction of one
has been the cause of quite a proportion of the petitions for the
abolition of grade crossings.

It has been felt by many that the railways should contribute
toward the expense of abolishing grade crossings, and bills have
been introduced into the Legislature having this object, but until
the last session of the Legislature nothing definite "was reached
toward a general law covering this subject.

In their report to the Legislature the Railroad Commissioners
recommended that the street railway should be required to pay part
of the expense of abolishing a grade crossing on which its tracks
existed ; that the special commissioners should decide the amount
to be paid by the railway, and the remainder of the expense should
be paid by the other parties in the same proportions as they now
pay the whole cost. This seems to be fair to all parties.

It has been found difficult to establish a basis for so dividing
the expense that all parties in interest shall be treated fairly. The
conditions vary greatly in the various cases, and possibly each of
the parties heretofore in interest desires that its share of the expense
shall be lessened by the contribution of the newcomer. The condi-
tions vary so much that it would be difficult to fix percentage of the
whole cost which would be fair in all cases for the railway's pro-
portion.

It would in many cases be a decided advantage to the railway
to be made a party in interest and have regular standing before the
special commission. If it should be required to pay part of the cost,
it would have a right to be heard concerning the work to be de-
cided upon by the commission.

Several street railway companies have within the last few
years located their lines partly upon their own land outside the
limit's of public ways. By so building, it has become necessary in
some instances to cross public ways from one part of their private
right of way to another, thus establishing grade crossings differing
but little from those of railroads. The conditions leading to danger
are nearly the same in both cases, and it will probably be found
necessary to place by legal enactment the same safeguards around
railway crossings of this nature as have been applied to railroad
crossings.

The writer has been pleased to note that in some recent loca-
tions the railway companies have recognized this element of danger
and have provided for carrying their lines over or under public
ways.

178 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

According to the Railroad Commissioners' report for 1902, there
were, on September 30, 1901, three hundred and twelve crossings at
grade of street railways with railroads. Quite a number of these
crossings were, however, railway tracks crossing spur tracks of
railroads away from the main lines.

AMOUNT EXPENDED.

Up to January, 1901, as shown in the report of the Railroad
Commission, the Commonwealth expended for the abolition of
grade crossings the amounts shown in the following statement:

TABLE IX.

Paid by
Year. Commonwealth.

1892 $87,056.29

1893 96,I4I-97

1894 270,485.07

1895 407,49172

1896 874,211.81

1897 715,938.62

1898 488,981.18

1899 510,340.00

1900 925,482.19

$4,376,128.85

Of the above amount there has been repaid by cities and towns
$512,023.63; to be repaid, $864,934.97; total, $1,376,958.60, which,
subtracted from the amount paid out by the Commonwealth, leaves
a balance of $2,999,170.25. This, taken as twenty-five per cent.
of the whole, gives: proportion of cities and towns, $1,199,668.10;
proportion of railroads, $7,787,742.65 ; a total expenditure under
the Act of 1890 of $11,986,581.

UNDER SPECIAL ACTS.

In addition, there has been expended under special acts up to
January 1, 1901, by the Commonwealth for the abolition of grade
crossings in the city of Boston and the towns of Hyde Park and
Dedham the sum of $2,687,930.55. Of this the proportion of the
Commonwealth, after deducting payments which have been or will
be made by the city and towns, is $1,881,551.39, making a total of
expenditure for this object between the time of the passage of the
Act, in 1890, and January 1, 1901, $17,904,655.91 under the pro-
visions of the Act of 1890 and special acts.

The total number of crossings abolished, as given by the Rail-
road Commissioners in their report for 1902, is 243. In the same
report the number of grade crossings still existing is given at 2001.

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 179

There are still in existence a number of the most dangerous grade
crossings, some of them among the most expensive to abolish.

The aggregate capital stock of the forty-five railroad corpora-
tions reporting in Massachusetts June 30, 1901, was $210,305,-
885.72, but of this amount quite a large proportion is of corpora-
tions having a large proportion of their railroads in other States.
The capital stock of railroads in Massachusetts, that is, the capital
stock of railroads entirely within the State added to the proportion
due to mileage in the State of those railroads which are in more
than one State, is about $97,000,000.

The Railroad Commisioners, in their report for 1902, stated as
follows :

"Early in the year the fund provided by the Commonwealth
to meet its share in the expenses of abolishing grade crossings of
highway and railroad was practically exhausted."

The words "early in the year," of course, refer to the year 1901.

In consequence of the expenditure of all funds available under
previous acts, the Legislature during its last session passed addi-
tional acts providing means for continuing the work of abolishing
grade crossings and dealing with some features of the work not
previously provided for.

Chapter 440, Acts 1902, approved June 4, 1902, makes several
important changes in the provisions of the Act of 1890 and the
acts passed at later dates amending the same.

"The directors of a street railway company having a location
in that part of the public way where such crossing exists" are given
the same rights of petition as the city or town authorities and di-
rectors of railroads have heretofore had. "Upon all petitions here-
after filed and upon all now pending on which no commission has
been appointed .... such street railway company shall be
made a party."

The actual cost to the street railway of changing its railway
and location to conform to the decree of the court is made part of
the cost of abolishing the crossing. The commission may assess
upon any street railway company duly made a party to the proceed-
ings such percentage of said total cost not exceeding fifteen per
cent, thereof, as may in the judgment of the commission be just
and equitable. The proportions to be paid by the railroad and city
or town remain the same as in the previous acts, thus relieving the
Commonwealth of the part assessed upon the railway. Provision is
also made for the repayment by the Commonwealth to the railway
company of the amount so paid by it if in the future its location is
revoked without its consent, the Railroad Commissioners to decide

180 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

whether such repayment shall be made. The special commission
may change the location of a street railway.

Chapter 440 also authorizes the expenditure of five million
dollars by the Commonwealth, the amount to be paid in any one year
not to exceed five hundred thousand dollars ; but if in any one year
the amount expended shall not be five hundred thousand dollars,
the unexpended remainder shall be added to the amount to be paid
in any subsequent year.

"No final decree shall be made by said Superior Court upon
any report of commissioners setting forth a plan for the abolition,
discontinuance or alteration of a grade crossing, adopting or con-
firming such plan or authorizing any expense to be charged against
the Commonwealth, until the Board of Railroad Commissioners,
after a hearing, shall have certified in writing that in their opinion
the adoption of such plan and the expenditure to be incurred there-
under are consistent with the public interests, and are reasonably
requisite to secure a fair distribution between the different cities,
towns and railroads of the Commonwealth, of the public money ap-
propriated in the preceding section for the abolition of grade cross-
ings, and that such expenditure will not, in the judgment of said
Board, exceed the amount provided under the preceding section to
be paid by the Commonwealth."

The work of abolishing grade crossings in this State has pro-
ceeded in a manner which promises to remove, within a few years,
a large proportion of those most dangerous to public travel. The
large expense involved has made it necessary to move with some
degree of deliberation. From the figures given, it will be seen that
the interests of both taxpayer and stockholder require that care be
used to avoid undue expense in carrying out the work. The de-
creased number of casualties at crossings already shows that the
work done is producing the results hoped for.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. John W. Ellis. — In providing for the abolition of grade
crossings, the general plan to be adopted is a matter of judgment,
dependent upon local conditions.

I am hardly willing to agree with the writer of this paper, that
the course which has been pursued in the State of Massachusetts
is the most equitable and justifiable one, more particularly in the
matter of definite proportions, and having an independent or dif-
ferent commission upon every petition for abolition of grade cross-
ings,— for that is what the purport of the law is.

I have often thought that it would be much better if the Gov-
ernor and Council appointed a continuous commission, the same as
the Railroad Commission, who by their experience could so classify

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 181

the different petitions that their decisions would be more equitable
to all the parties in interest.

Very often the petitioner is the railroad company, and solely
because they wish to make important improvements, either new
terminals or additions to the freight facilities, which are of par-
ticular benefit to the railroad company itself ; also, often the peti-
tioner is the city in like respect : for that reason, in a number of
cases I have thought that the proportions ought not to be invariably
the same.

The law or act in this State has nearly always fixed the pro-
portions, and in the matter of the great progress of the street rail-
road, which, as the writer has stated, has increased so far beyond
anyone's conception since 1890 that they have become a party in
interest, and one to help pay for these improvements.

In Chicago there is no grade crossings commission, but a
grade crossing commissioner is appointed.

At the time when the Chicago act (?) was passed, it was
thought that it gave too much power and too much authority to
one person. The ordinance of the City Council defines distinctly
just how much the railroad is to be raised or depressed and defi-
nite grades of the streets. The commissioner sees that the require-
ments of the ordinance is complied with by the railroad, which
does all the construction work.

The railroad company pays the whole bill except the land
damages, and those in the city of Chicago are not settled yet. I
understand they have accumulated for a number of years and are
still on the docket.

Another question frequently occurs, particularly here in the
East. The two principal parties, the railroad and the city, con-
sume most of the time at the hearing before the commission.

The abutter, the owner of the property, is allowed to be heard,
but he does not have very much voice before the commission ; but,
perhaps that is just, for he has his remedy at law, before a jury,
and usually comes out better than either the railroad company or
the city.

I have often wondered whether, if the State of .Massachusetts
had not fixed these proportions at the time it did in the inception
of its law, but had waited until this time, they would have fixed
the proportions as they are to-day.

The President. — Mr. Ellis, what is the proportion in Rhode
Island?

Mr. Ellis. — There is no law in Rhode Island. The proportion
has always been fixed by amicable agreement, but I do not think

182 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

that the railroad companies have ever paid over 50 per cent. In
fact, I know that, in the city of Providence, in the matter of ac-
complishing certain terminal facilities within the city limits, they
went so far as to pay nearly 50 per cent. The whole thing,
practically, was done by the railroad company, but a distinct agree-
ment existed, between the railroad and the city, that they should
assume certain expenses in regard to grade damages which really
amounted on preliminary estimates to about 50 per cent.

I have recently had some experience in Detroit, where the
whole matter is arranged by ordinance, about the same as in
Chicago. The desirable growth for a railroad is about the same,
but the growths of the streets of the cities vary.

In Fall River, a tide-water citv and very hilly, nearly every-
thing is received at sea level.

For a city like that the maximum grades are entirely different
from those at Taunton, only a few miles distant.

Detroit is entirely flat, and in that case you will find the rail-
roads protecting the interests of the manufacturers to such
extent that they don't think it wise that the streets should be de-
pressed adjoining manufacturing property contiguous to a railroad,
and in that city the manufacturers have redress at law. They get
very large remuneration for any change in the grade of streets.
The city itself is willing to be subject to what we would call a
maximum grade for the depression of streets rather than have the
manufacturers put to any trouble.

Mr. J. W. Rollins, Jr. — Some years of work on grade cross-
ing schemes in making plans and decrees have shown some inter-
esting results of the law as now on the statute book.

The matters of land takings and of changes of grade of high-
ways seem incomplete in that no notice is served on owners of such
takings or changes of grade; so that, unless the parties interested
go to the hearings and there learn of the changes proposed and as
to how it will affect their property, they will be in ignorance of any
change until the work actually begins ; and, if this is not within
a year of filing of decree, they will have no standing in court
and must accept such awards as the city or town or the railroad
company may make.

In railroad locations where land is taken, a plan of such taking
must be given to the owners, and then the owner has three years
within which to bring suit.

At Brockton a man unknown to the railroad company owned
a piece of land within the limits of the new freight yard, and this
land was taken by decree. A year later it was graded down 25 feet

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 183

and its original appearance was entirely changed. The owner
turned up about this time and wanted his land, but it wasn't there,
and he had to take the award of the railroad company, which,
doubtless, was a fair one.

Again, on Ruggles Street, Roxbury, the street grade was
changed some 5 feet at railroad crossing, and of this change owners
on the street were not notified. Two years after the decree was
filed the work was done, the owners had no redress and to-day
some of the property affected is left above the street grade.

Another interesting question is, Who shall do the work of
changing both the railroad and the streets? The railroad com-
pany, paying 65 per cent, of the cost, and fearing to allow city
authorities a chance to work "politics" into the scheme, wants to
control all the work, while, on the other hand, the city wishes to
do for itself the work on its own streets. One large scheme, after
long and warm discussion, was settled, and I think wisely, by allow-
ing the city engineer to make plans and specifications for the sur-
facing of the streets, which work was contracted for by the rail-
road company and actually done under the direction and super-
vision of the city engineer. My opinion is that most railroad
engineers have enough troubles of their own and are willing to
shift the matter of street grades and construction, sewers and the
like, onto the city engineer.

One case coming to our notice was where the decree provided
that the town should do the work on the street, which work was
particularly heavy, being hard digging and some rock work. The
town put onto the job, at $2 per day, all its delinquent taxpayers
who were willing to make a bluff at working off their taxes, and
the result was that the grading cost about $1 per yard, while it
could have been contracted for at 35 cents. The railroad company
objected to the bill, but I think they finally paid it.

Another point is the division of cost : the 65, 25 and 10 per cent,
according to law always seemed to us to involve, in many cases,
an excessive charge on the railroad.

For instance, at a grade crossing on the Providence Division
of the Old Colony Railroad, a main thoroughfare, the street was
wide and straight and the railroad was a tangent for miles. The
crossing was not a particularly dangerous one, and to change it
meant the abandoning of a piece of the highway for half a mile
and building a substitute road crossing the railroad some 300 feet
to one side of the original crossing.

An electric road came along and wanted to cross, having gotten
location in the highway, and I think the electric company and the

184 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

steam road had a scuffle on the site to prevent a crossing. The
railroad company petitioned at once for the abolition of the cross-
ing and met with the greatest opposition from the town authorities
and the land owners on the street. They wanted a grade crossing,
with electric cars using it. Finally the commission decided, for
the "safety of the public," that the grade crossing must go, and
the railroad company at once pushed the work to a completion.
This seemed to be a case where the imposition of 6s per cent, of
the cost on the railroad was unjust, inasmuch as work was done to
avoid an electric railway grade crossing.

Under the existing law, the conditions would be changed as
to this division, and quite justly, making the street railway share
in the expense.

Sometimes crossings are abolished, at the request of town or
city, ..where the railroad interest is small. On the other hand, the
railroad at times wishes to get rid of crossings in which the towns
have no interest, and we think that, in some such cases, the com-
mission has apportioned to them only 6 or 8 per cent, of cost.

In some of the first big schemes undertaken the railroad com-
pany met with this sentiment from the towns : "We pay only 10
per cent, of cost, and that in ten annual payments to the Common-
wealth, and so we do not care about cost; if you will give us what
we want, you can do as you please with your railroad."

Under this trade, valuable improvements were made by the
railroad; new streets laid out; new pavements, etc., put in by the
city, and all charged to the scheme, and the Commonwealth not
appearing at all in the proceedings nor objecting to any bills which
the two other parties agreed to, the accounts were approved by
the auditors.

In this way, schemes estimated to cost $363,000 by the Grade
Crossing Commission cost $2,300,000, while one estimated at $1,-
350,000, cost nearly $4,000,000. These discrepancies were doubt-
less due in part to the fact that more crossings were abolished than
were originally estimated upon.

This liberal policy of the State seems to us to be a good one,
in that under it the work was made complete, and suitable pro-
vision was made for both the railroad and the city for future de-
velopment.

When building the Massachusetts Central Railroad through
Waltham, in 1880, the railroad company did not think it worth
while to ask for a location crossing a certain street at grade, in
view of the stand then being taken by the Railroad Commission

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 185

against such crossings. As a result, the location was filed to cross
under the street, raising it some 16 feet.

It was one of the most beautiful streets in town, bordered by
large elms, and to raise it meant a perpetual eyesore to that part
of the town, besides being a nuisance to traffic to go up a 5 per
cent, grade on each side.

Some interested citizens got up a mass meeting and so strongly
protested against any change in the street that the Railroad Com-
mission relented and allowed a grade crossing : to be abolished later.

This seemed to be a common sentiment in those days regarding
high bridges over tracks or tunnels under them, and the people
generally seemed to be willing to take their chances on the crossings
rather than go up or down, over or under the railroad.

A question now interesting cities is : What kind of a bridge
will the railroad company build? All the strong adjectives in the
dictionary have been applied to a "plate girder" bridge, the most
common type in use, and strong efforts are made for stone arches,
"esthetic features," and something pleasing to look at.

The "chromos" made by artistic engineers of stone arches for
certain crossings would make a suitable offering to the St. Louis
Exposition in 1904, — some of them more suitable to be exhibited
than to be used as plans for construction.

Once, at a grade crossing hearing, a leading railroad attorney
asked me what I was there for. I answered, "To try to show the
commission that stone arches are cheaper and better than steel
bridges." He answered, "The railroad companies oppose arches
while they should build them, they making a permanent roadway,
and one over which any train load can run ; no painting, loose
rivets, etc. ; but, all the same, they build steel bridges."

On the other side, the cities demand the arches simply on
account of the looks, for a bridge will give them more headroom
on the sides of the streets and more light under the tracks, but
their hideous appearance overbalances these considerations and they
ask for arches.

The question of construction in grade crossing work presents
many intricate problems for engineers and much interesting work.
A president of a New England railroad entering Boston with a
double track and heavy traffic is reported to have said : "If we
are to abolish the crossings we must abandon our road while the
work is being done." On a location about 50 feet wide on this
same road a double track was maintained two years, with an ad-
ditional train service, and the road raised 20 feet in the air, being

186 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

held by retaining walls whose bases alone took up over 20 feet of
the width of location.

Engineers glory in such achievements, when accomplished,
forgetting then the worry (and worse) over the question whether
everything is clear of traffic or strong enough to carry it ; whether
some idiot will drop a stone on the track or let a derrick fall across
it. When life is involved to such an extent, the engineers often
wish that they, too, could strike for an eight-hour day of work,
and, after that, seek recreation in the "bosoms of their families,"
or "improve their minds" as other eight-hour men do.

But the profession required the assumption of all responsi-
bilities, and meets them, small or great, as they come.

Mr. H. Bissell. — I think one of the greatest faults in the
grade-crossing law as it stands is in the matter of settling for dam-
ages to property of abutters.

Prof. George F. Swain. — I fear I can add nothing of value to
the discussion of this paper, but I feel greatly indebted to Mr.
Turner for preparing it. It is a valuable summary and discussion
of the whole subject. One point, however, comes to my mind in
relation to the relative advantages of permanent commission, as
compared with the appointment of a separate commission for each
case. If the Legislature had not fixed the proportions which the
different parties should pay, I should certainly agree with Mr. Ellis
that it would be much better to have a permanent commission
which should direct or decide with reference to all such work. The
fact that the Legislature has fixed proportions which the different
parties must pay, however, makes the appointment of a special
commission in each case justifiable, and I agree with Mr. Turner
that the results of this method have been good. It is undoubtedly
true that the relative proportions to be paid by the parties ought
in fairness to be varied in different cases ; but if they had not been
fixed, a new element of uncertainty would have been added in each
case, and it strikes me that perhaps on the whole it was wisest to
fix these proportions once for all. What the results would have
been if a permanent commission had been appointed can, of course,
only be conjectured; but even a permanent commission is not really
permanent, as its membership changes from time to time on ac-
count of death, political exigencies, etc. For instance, the Railroad
Commission has completely changed about twice in the last twelve
years. The Board consists of three members, and in the last twelve
years there have been nine persons serving upon it. Of course, the
records of a permanent commission are permanent and valuable,
and its traditions endure to a certain extent ; but any change in

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 187

membership is likely to be accompanied by some change of practice
or policy. It does not follow that its practice must be absolutely
unvarying.

Mr. William F. Williams. — I am glad that Mr. Turner has
left one subject for me to say a few words upon without assuming
to take issue with such a very interesting and valuable paper. He
has stated that, in nearly all grade crossing cases, the railroad has
been in sympathy with the movement and has offered no objection
to the alterations sought for. New Bedford happens to be one
of the exceptions, inasmuch as we have had to meet a very vigorous
opposition from the railroad to the adoption of any plan for the
elimination of our crossings.

The New Bedford Commission was appointed in 1894 and it
has not yet reported. The city has done everything in its power to
furnish the commission with all the information required to enable
it to report; but, so far, without success. While our experience
may have been unusual, it is evident that the law has not provided
for such a contingency, and it is of sufficient importance to merit
some consideration.

The law evidently intends that the "security and convenience
of the public" shall be the paramount issue, for it provides that if
the commission decide "that the security and convenience of the
public require the alterations" then "they shall prescribe the man-
ner and limits thereof," etc. There is no room for personal dis-
cretion in the latter declaration, and why should there be, after it
has been declared that "the security and convenience of the public"
require a change? How can you differentiate this question in
various localities on the basis of cost and operation, which the
railroad would have you believe are the controlling factors? This
is the law as it stands to-day, although, in fairness to the railroad,
which, in the first instance, pays the larger part of the cost of the
changes, there should be some discretion allowed in determining
the time when the work shall be done. On the other hand, it is
manifestly improper that even a conceded deficiency in the law
should be an excuse for not executing the law as it stands, instead
of prolonging the investigation indefinitely at considerable expense
to the city and with great uncertainty and loss to the citizen whose
property may be involved in the proposed changes.

It has been suggested that better results might be obtained if
there were a permanent grade crossing commission whose whole
time would be devoted to this one subject. Personally, I do not
believe this is the best way. I think the law itself should provide
for a reasonable conclusion to every investigation. It is true that

188 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

in time a permanent commission would accumulate a large amount
of valuable information, which would be easily available and could
be readily applied, as there is a certain similarity in the difficulties
which will be met in the various cases. But there are only a few
ways of abolishing a grade crossing, one of which must fit every
case. There will be local features that will have to be worked out
differently in each case, but they can all be met. None, I think,
are insurmountable, and there will seldom be any engineering
reason why they cannot be met and decided in a reasonable length
of time, say two or three years.

The general plan having been determined, the question as to
when the work shall be done might well be a separate feature, as
no doubt it might be made a great hardship to the railroad. I
believe that the time within which the work shall be done should
be fixed by the commission so as not to embarrass any of the
parties in the case, but the report itself should be concluded and
accepted, and then any citizen whose property is involved would
know with certainty what is to be done. In New Bedford we
have a considerable amount of private lands involved in the pro-
posed alterations, and the owners of these lands do not know
whether the changes will ever be made or not, and, pi course, they
are more or less deterred, if not actually prevented, from making
improvements.

It has been stated that the cost of grade crossing work in the
past has included many items not properly chargeable to the fund,
and that the cities and towns have been the principal offenders in
this matter. No doubt the general statement is correct, but to say
whether the railroad or the municipality received the greater bene-
fits would require a careful examination of the expenditures in
each particular case. It is a fact, however, that municipal officials
are beginning to realize that the expense to cities and towns is not
all included in the 10 per cent, fixed by law. Furthermore, the 25
per cent, advanced by the State must eventually come out of the
cities and towns, and if the railroad's 65 per cent, is ever liquidated,
the major part will of necessity come from the same source.

Recent reports and pending investigations show a very decided
disposition on the part of all to restrict the cost, irrespective of
the law. Nevertheless, there are cases where a strictly literal
observance of the law will so restrict the design and scope of the
alterations that they will not be acceptable to either the city or
the railroad. Where radical changes in existing relations between
streets and railroad are unavoidable, they must be made in a
spirit sufficiently broad to provide equally as good facilities for

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 189

the transaction of business as now exist, and to fairly anticipate
the needs of the future.

I cannot resist replying to one remark made by Mr. Rollins
in relation to the manner in which certain grade crossing work
was performed by some city or town. Perhaps it is because I am
in the city's interest that I resent the imputation. I am positive
that very few, if any, of the municipalities of Massachusetts would
put on their pay-roll delinquent tax-payers simply to take advantage
of the opportunity to enable them to pay their taxes at the expense
of the railroad and State. While it might be done in a town,
there are various reasons, political as well as legal, why it is im-
practicable in a city. I might point to the fact that many cities
and towns in Massachusetts do a great deal of their own work.
The city of New Bedford, for example, does not contract any of
its street or sewer construction. I believe the actual cost of such
work in New Bedford will compare favorably with contract prices
for similar work anywhere in the State. A city which does its own
work will have a plant which in itself represents not only a large
investment, but the acquisition of considerable knowledge in the
operation of the plant. It is hardly fair, therefore, to insinuate
that a city, which can perform its own work at reasonable prices is
not competent to do the same work in a grade crossing alteration
simply because there are other parties to its payment.

Mr. Robert R. Evans. — One point which has been raised in
the discussion of Mr. Turner's paper suggests to a city engineer
another point of view from that which has been taken.

I do not think that the readiness of the city, which has been
commented upon, to consent to almost anything which adds to the
cost of the work, for the sake of improving it, arises from the fact
that its share of the expense is comparatively small and is made
to seem even smaller by a division into ten annual payments, but
I do think that, within reasonable limits, it may be justifiable and
proper for other reasons.

If the work is carried out under a too rigid observance of the
strictest economy in the cost of construction, and if the bare needs
of travel only, on both streets and railroad, are considered, the
general appearance of the work is very sure to suffer, and quite
probably, also, the convenience of the inhabitants of the city, in
their use of the streets and railroad.

These matters may be of little consequence to the railroad
company or to the State, but they are of great importance to the
city; and the mere fact that the city pays but 10 per cent, of the
cost of the work should not be a sufficient reason for forcing upon

igo ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

it a construction which permanently disfigures its streets or un-
necessarily discommodes its citizens if these objections can be met
by a reasonable increase in the cost of the work.

The city should give great weight to these considerations when
carrying out any permanent work, and a disregard of them works
injury, and, in the immediate vicinity of the work, cannot but
result in lower real estate values and a corresponding decrease in
revenue.

Prof. C. Frank Allen. — The suggestion has been made by
one of the previous speakers that while the city and the railroad are
both represented at the hearings, as a rule the State seems to have
no representative, and that it sometimes has appeared that the
interests of the State were not sufficiently protected. It is very
possible that this may be true. I have been told very recently by
the Superintendent of one of our railroads that many items of a
sort that used to go through as charges to the grade crossing
abolishment are now held up because the Auditor intervenes and
refuses to allow items of a sort that in some previous cases had
been allowed. There appears to be a general attitude different
from that which previously existed, but whether this simply means
that certain auditors of late have been more than usually careful
I have no means of knowing. It certainly is a matter of consider-
able difficulty to know just what items should be allowed under
present laws in case of the abolition of grade crossings. Often-
times the simple abolition of crossings could be accomplished at
very slight expense, and the actual abolition is sometimes accom-
plished at an expense manifold more, — five or ten times as much.
It does not necessarily follow that the larger expense is not justi-
fied. If the conditions, both as to the railroads and highway,
needed no change, the lower cost would be sufficient. But what
brings about the application for the abolition? Possibly it is the
case that the traffic on the street has increased so that some changes
need to be made for betterment of the street conditions. It may
be that the railroad is contemplating putting in additional tracks,
so as to have four tracks instead of two. It is rather unwise to go
into new work of that sort unless the whole matter can be cleared
up. Possibly, instead of a scheme for four tracks, it may happen
that the railroad finds occasion for yards and other improvements
in some neighborhood, and the necessity for work of that kind has
been the direct cause of the petitions being sent in at that particular
time. Then the abolishment should leave room for such changes.
It must provide opportunity for these extensions, for a large number
of tracks, for a yard, or such other improvements as are necessary.

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 191

There may be required a long and expensive bridge to cover these.
In such a case it may be proper for the cost of the abolition to in-
clude the cost of the additional yard, but there is, of course, oppor-
tunity for difference of opinion as to that. Is there not some
excuse for claiming that the abolition should cover whatever is
necessary to allow the yard to be put there if the railroad pays for
the yard ? I am not speaking of those cases, if there are any, where
the cost of abolition actually has included complete payment for
a very much improved yard, but I am raising the other question
of where a yard is necessary and where the abolition necessitates,
in some fashion or another, the taking care of the problem in such
a way as to provide for improvements which are contemplated.

It becomes a very difficult' matter for an auditor or for a com-
mission to determine just what should be allowed, as a part of the
cost of abolition, of matters that should be paid in part by the rail-
road, and in part by the city, and in part by the State. It is quite
easy to say, of course, right away that the work ought to be done
only in the simplest way, and yet it is not altogether clear that this
is fair.

I have in mind the case of a crossing in Ohio where a grade
crossing had been abolished. I don't know under what law, but
the grade of a street was raised in front of a large tract of land
owned by a man prominent and powerful in municipal politics. The
building of this embankment in front of the land produced a most
unfavorable impression upon the owner, and, as a result, action was
taken by the city government, under the laws that prevailed there,
so that it was decreed that the bridge should be taken down and
the work of abolishment completely undone. The railroad fought
the case for all it was worth, and carried it through all the courts
it could, but was constantly beaten. As a matter of fact, through
a slight technicality or accident the bridge finally was not removed.
The man with political power died, and the pressure for the change
was entirely removed. This was a case where the grades after
the abolishment were somewhat better than before the abolishment,
or than they would again be after the abolishment had been un-
done.

I am certainly very glad that we have Mr. Turner's paper,
so we can find at hand very many things it would bother us seri-
ously to hunt up, and also some things, specially within Mr.
Turner's knowledge, that we might not be able to find at all.

Mr. Hexry Manley. — I am very glad that some of the high-
way people have taken a part in this discussion. In the separation
of grades between a highway and a railroad there are two parties

16

192 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

to the divorce, and the subject should not be considered exclusively
from a railroad point of view.

I have listened with pleasure to the very perfect historical
statement of the movement in Massachusetts that Mr. Turner has
given us, but when I thought that he had thoroughly cleared the
ground, and had stated and discussed, with admirable clearness
and precision, the legal and financial points involved, and was ready
to attack the engineering phases of the subject — the paper ended.
The legal and financial questions I shall contend are clearly within
the reasonable province of the engineer, but I was a little disap-
pointed that the same clearness and precision could not have been
utilized in discussing the engineering questions that have arisen
during the progress of the work already accomplished.

It seems to me that, from the experience of the State of Massa-
chusetts there might have been evolved some general principles
which would be of interest ; for instance, we have two contrasting
examples in the greater Boston of abolition of grade crossings of
considerable magnitude, — those upon the Boston and Providence
Road and those upon the Boston and Albany, where opposite views
were taken. In one case the railroad, as left, forms a dyke through
the country which is not a pleasing thing to look at from the out-
side ; in the other case the road is sunken and has disappeared. In
other ways the city is attempting to beautify itself, and it would
seem to the looker-on that whenever a railroad may be depressed
and thereby obliterated from the landscape it would be much pre-
ferable to elevating it above the general surface.

In some recent decrees there is one feature which has ap-
pealed to me, in that the work to be done has been divided and
the construction of the surface of the highways has been left to the
city authorities. It seems to me that the people who have to main-
tain these structures should have something to say about the method
in which the work is done. I think the ordinary municipal engi-
neer who, without previous experience, attempted to build a rail-
road would not give satisfaction to the railroad corporation, and
I am equally certain that the average railroad engineer is out of
his element in building highways.

It has also seemed to me that the general powers of the com-
missions might be enlarged to cover, in addition to the particular
crossing or crossings which it is desired to reform, the general
subject of the future relations of the railroad in question to all
highways, whether already built or in contemplation or which will
inevitably be required by the growth of the highway system within
a reasonable distance of the starting point, thus assuming that all

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 193

grade crossings will be done away with sooner or later and fur-
nishing a basis for consistent action in future improvements by
both public and private enterprise.

Mr. Bissell. — I should like to remind Mr. Manley that the
highways are to be left in as good condition as we find them.

Mr. Manley. — The decree may read that way, but if they
should be left in relatively as good condition as the railroads are
left, I think there would be no cause for complaint.

Mr. Ellis. — Pardon me for saying a few words in correction.
I did not intend to give the wrong impression about the appoint-
ment of the commission. My idea of a permanent or a continuous
commission by appointment was to have the proportioning left to
them in all cases.

Take the special act which was passed on the Boston and
Providence Railroad from Forest' Hills to Boston. Since this road
was completed, its traffic and the speed of its trains have so in-
creased that it would be impossible to maintain service with grade
crossings and still have proper use of the streets of the city. The
proportions there should be different from those in other cases.

Also, in an isolated case where it would not cost over $12,000
to make the change, — the cost of maintaining the crossing, plank-
ing, electric bells, flagmen, etc., at the rate of 4 per cent., is such
that it would pay the railroad to do it itself.

In my own experience on the Providence and Worcester Rail-
road, the work was done without asking any aid from the town,
city or State. The proportioning should be left to the commission.

As to the arches mentioned by Mr. Rollins, I believe in arch
construction, and I regret that arches have not been used in the
city of Fall River, where there is so much granite, which has only
to be teamed down hill. It seems to me a great mistake in point of
engineering that such construction is not insisted upon.

I believe that a permanent commission would have better re-
sults, and permanent results. We all know that if we make a
mistake the sooner it is corrected the better it is for all parties.

Mr. G. R. Hardy. — About granite at Fall River, I may men-
tion that the contractor is drawing granite for Fall River from
Fitchburg and Whitingsville, Mass.

Mr. Fred La vis. — I may add that two arches are about to be
built on the Fall River work.

Mr. Ellis. — I am very pleased to hear it.

Mr. Frederick Brooks. — It has been made evident that the
railroad companies are guided by competent advisers, and that
the municipalities are. As to the poor old Commonwealth, which

194 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

has been referred to once or twice, I may mention what was said
by a witty railroad lawyer in one of the earlier cases under the
general law. The Attorney-General's office was represented at the
hearings by three different gentlemen. As to one point in the
interpretation of the law the counsel for the railroad said that it
did not appear that the Attorney-General himself had any particular
opinion, but that when he wished one view to be set forth he had
the First Assistant Attorney-General represent him, and when he
wanted the opposite view taken he sent the Second Assistant At-
torney-General to speak for the Commonwealth.

Mr. I. M. Story. — So far as the State is concerned, the Attor-
ney-General has not appeared during the last ten years for the reason
that it was supposed that the railroads and the cities could get
along very well without him. But the cities and the railroads have
both shown such a desire to increase what one might call their
betterments that the State has now stepped in. I think hereafter
the Attorney-General will appear and look out for the interests of
the State. I am quite sure that this is the position of the present
Attorney-General.

Mr. Williams has spoken about the delay in the New Bedford
matter. I think he will find that the question of ■ betterments has
caused the delay. It has caused trouble in a great many cases
because the law establishes the percentages to be paid by each
party, — a very great weakness in the law. The percentage should
be fixed by the commission in each case. Then, if betterments
were to be made, as most assuredly they would be, that would be
taken into consideration in determining the percentages. Then
if the city wanted a new street they could put it in and pay for it ;
if the railroad wanted a new freight yard or other additions they
could get them and pay for them. Now, if one of the parties sees
that the other party wants new accommodations, there is objection
and consequent delay.

Mr. W. O. Webber (by letter). — In discussing Mr. Turner's
paper on the abolition of grade crossings regarding the statement
that 'The results have been as good, probably much better than
would have been reached if one fixed commission had been con-
stituted to hear and decide all cases arising under the law," I would
like to say that, while there is little question that the feature of a
special commission for each case or group of cases has been ac-
ceptable and has worked well, I do not think it has been proved
conclusively that the results which might have been obtained from
one fixed commission would not have been better. While it is true
that under Section 2 of the Act of 1890 "the court may consolidate

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 195

several petitions .... and by considering the work of alter-
ations of a group of crossings as one problem .... plan
the changes so that interference or useless work and expense may
be avoided," there is still a question in my mind whether this pro-
vision would enable a separate commission to treat any group of
crossings as intelligently and as economically as if the matter were
taken into consideration in connection with the next adjoining or
subsequent crossings, bearing indirectly, but none the less influen-
tial!}', upon the group of crossings in question. And, also, it is con-
ceivable in my mind that the members of such special commission
would have learned, once for all, and by reason of a study of a
great number of cases and simplified methods have adopted certain
almost necessarily foregone conclusions. For instance, almost all
large aggregations of public highways and railroads are in thickly-
settled communities. Thickly-settled communities are almost al-
ways in close proximity to streams or ponds of water. Streams
or ponds of water are of necessity almost always situated in val-
leys or low-lying grounds. Railroads, therefore, almost always
descend into and rise out of thickly-settled localities.

In the separation, therefore, of grade crossings, the elevation
of the railroad tracks is almost always followed by a reduction of
the gradients of the railroad, which is distinctly beneficial to them.

From an engineering point of view, it is always cheaper to
raise a railroad than to depress it. A railroad can in almost
every case be raised without the interruption of traffic over its lines.
On the contrary, if a railroad is to be lowered, it is almost im-
practicable to do so without stopping traffic or building a detour
around the entire location during the period of depressing the
tracks.

It has been found that railways require less change of grade
when elevated than when depressed ; consequently, the cost is less.

Retaining walls cost less for an elevated railroad than for a
depressed railroad. The tracks are more easily kept clean of snow,
and surface drainage is more easily taken care of with the elevated
than with a depressed track. Considerable discussion has been held
in times past as to the disadvantage in loading and unloading
freight which would be consequent upon the elevation of railroad
tracks through a manufacturing center. In almost every case
which has been thoroughly tried out in this State, a relocation of
freight yards has partially proved this problem. There is no ques-
tion that all materials in bulk can be unloaded more cheaply from
an elevated track than from a track on the level, and it is the
opinion of the writer that many factories would find it just as

196 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

convenient to have a spur track entering their premises and build-
ings on the level of the second floor as on the ground level, for
almost all manufacturing plants are equipped with power elevators.
The ground floors are almost always pretty fully equipped with
heavy machines requiring foundation, and the establishment of
assembling and erecting floors on the second story would in many
cases require less handling of materials and in better lighted rooms
than if on the first floor.

The annoyance to the community from gases, cinders and
smoke is much less from an elevated track than from one on the
level or depressed, so that almost every argument is in favor of
elevated steam railroad tracks in the separation of crossings.

The objection, from an aesthetic point of view, that railway
viaducts are necessarily unsightly is not well taken. It is quite
true that most of our American engineering structures are not
artistic, but they could be made so at a very slight additional ex-
pense, and the writer looks forward to the time when railway
viaducts and even steel bridges may become objects of pride and
ornamentation to a community rather than an eye-sore.

The rapidly growing increase in the use of electric street rail-
ways, establishing communication between small communities, also
has a bearing on this point, for the reason that such intercom-
munication will result in the steam railways being used for long
distances only. It is, therefore, less burden to the community to
climb up occasionally to the elevated steam railroad station, and
be enabled to take the electric car on grade. Undoubtedly the
separation of highway and electric railway grades will also become
of vital importance, and here again much consideration must be
given to the accommodation of the many as against the convenience
of the few.

The street railways must also expect to bear their share of the
burden of the separation of grades in connection not only with
the crossing of steam railroads and electric roads with highways,
but also with the crossings of highways by the electric railways
at grades. Electric railways and steam railways should never be
allowed to cross at grade, even for a limited period, and the recent
large number of accidents caused by the electric railways and
teams at highway crossings at grade leads me to believe that there
is no reasonable excuse for such crossings.

Electric railways should not be built in public highways nor
allowed to cross public highways at grade if otherwise possible.

The construction figures of the Northampton branch of the
N. Y., N. H. & H. Road has convinced me that the cost of con-

ABOLITION OF GRADE CROSSINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 197

struction of a railway, whether steam or electric, is no greater
without grade crossings than with them, and I do not believe that
the necessities of any railroad are sufficient to justify the latter
method of construction.

These points can be duly impressed and thoroughly learned
only by long, comprehensive and far-reaching study of all of the
conditions ; and for this reason, if for no other, I still believe that
the permanent commission would be productive of better results
in the long run, and for all time, than a special commission in
each case or group of cases.

Mr. E. K. Turner (by letter) . — It is a pleasure to know that
the paper furnished a foundation for a discussion covering so many
interesting points. Possibly as much has developed in the line of
engineering as would have been the case if the paper had taken
up this part of the subject more fully, as was so pleasantly sug-
gested by Mr. Manley.

Mr. Geo. A. Kimball (by letter). — Mr. Rollins, in his remarks
in regard to the abolition of grade crossings in Boston and Brock-
ton, calls attention to the difference between the actual cost of the
improvements and the estimated cost as found in the report of the
Grade Crossing Commission. As a member of that Commission,
I wish to state that it estimated the expense of the abolition of
grade crossings as strictly for that change alone, not including any
improvements to the railroad or street, while the actual expendi-
tures made in Boston and Brockton included additional tracks,
new stations and better terminal facilities for the railroad com-
panies, new and better streets and improved drainage facilities for
the cities ; all of which are great improvements both for the rail-
roads and the cities, but, in the opinion of the Grade Crossing Com-
mission, were not properly chargeable to the abolition of grade
crossings. In general, the same comments may be made in regard
to many of the crossings which have been abolished during the
last few years. Most any improvement that the cities and railroad
companies could agree upon has been charged into the cost of the
abolition of grade crossings.

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

OBITUARY.

James Spiers.

Member of the Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

The Technical Society of the Pacific Coast has lost one of its
most valued members in the death of James Spiers, the President of
the Fulton Iron Works, at San Francisco.

From the very first beginning of the Society, Mr. Spiers con-
nected himself with it, and for years remained an active and ener-
getic member, holding the office of director and that of treasurer for
many consecutive terms. Of recent years, his health having failed,
he no longer could give the Society any time or attention, but there
were occasional communications from him that indicated that he
never had lost his interest in the work of the organization.

The members of the Technical Society take this occasion to
express their sympathy with the family of the deceased and to
show that both as an engineer and as a man, James Spiers is not
and will not be forgotten by the many colleagues with whom he
came in contact. All mourn his loss and not one who has had the
pleasure of knowing him will ever forget his kind face and his
warm and genial manner.

The following synopsis of his useful life has been kindly
furnished to the Secretary by Mr. James Spiers, Jr. :

James Spiers, a descendant of old Huguenot and Covenanter
families, was born in Scotland in 1836. He showed early in life an
inclination for mechanics, becoming at the age of twenty-one, the
successful manager of a large foundry in Edinburgh. In 1864 he
resigned from that position and came to America, intending to
settle at Vancouver, B. C, but deciding in favor of San Fran-
cisco upon the advice of Mr. Risdon, of the Risdon Iron Works.
After spending three months in studying the conditions for mining
machinery on the coast, he took the position of general superin-
tendent of the Miners' Foundry, which he held three years, then
became a member of the firm of McAfie, Spiers & Company, sub-
sequently combining with the Fulton Iron Works, with which his
name has been associated ever since. Under his management the
Fulton Iron Works grew in prosperity. Two fires, however, proved
disastrous, and about ten years ago Mr. Spiers, president and gen-
eral manager, established the foundry at Harbor View. As a
ship-building and engineering establishment, ranking with the larg-

OBITUARY. 109

est on the coast, the Fulton Iron Works stand largely as a monument
to the energy and zeal of Mr. Spiers. But the strenuousness of his
life proving too great, three years ago a stroke of apoplexy put an
end to his active career and on the thirteenth of August, 1902, at the
age of sixty-six, his strong constitution finally succumbed. Though
a member of many societies and clubs Mr. Spiers was chiefly inter-
ested in educational matters. Having lead in Edinburgh free
classes in mechanical drawing for young men, he took a deep inter-
est in the establishment of similar classes and work here, being a
trustee of the Mechanics Institute for eighteen years and a trustee
of the California School of Mechanical Arts, founded by James
Lick, in which latter capacity he found an opportunity for his most
effective activity. With a marked taste for literature and fine arts
he always held Burns as his favorite author and flowers his greatest
delight. His mechanical library was large and his knowledge of
mechanics intricate and exact. He had a fine nature marked by
justice and liberality. Arriving in San Francisco, with but small
means, his fortune and his place in the community he gained
wholly by his own effort.

It is ordered that a copy of these resolutions be sent to the
family of our late fellow-member, and that they be also spread upon
the records of the Society.

Otto von Geldern, Committee.

Oscar F. Whitford.

Member of the Engineers' Society of Western New York.

Oscar F. Whitford, third child and second son of Earl
Hartwell, and Asenath (Palmer) Whitford, was born July 15, 1833,
in the town of Northumberland, Saratoga county, N. Y. Died
May 21, 1902.

He lived on his father's farm where he was born until he grew
to manhood, attending District Schools, Schuyerville Academy and
a preparatory school at Charlotteville, N. Y. After graduating
from Union College in the classical course in 1858, having taken a
part of the engineering course as extra under Professor Gillispie,
he went to Mississippi where he taught school and sold machinery
until 1 861, when he returned to Union College to take a post-
graduate course in chemistry, receiving the degree of A.M. In
1862 he was a volunteer in the U. S. Army for four months to
escort and protect emigrants across the Western Plains and Rocky

200 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Mountains. After this service he engaged in gold mining enter-
prises in California and Idaho for about a year, leaving this work
to accept the chair of mathematics and civil engineering in the
Peoples' College, at Havana, N. Y. (now Montour Falls). For a
period of ten years up to 1876 he was employed on New York
state canals in the Engineering Department in charge of work first
on the Chenango canal and afterward on the Erie canal. Leaving
this service he engaged in lead mining in Missouri for two years,
after which he was engineer on construction of the Southern Kan-
sas Railroad for a year. The following year, 1880, was taken up in
testing cements and the duties of general storekeeper for the Platts-
mouth bridge. Silver and gold mining occupied his attention in
Colorado and Mexico from 1881 to 1887; the last two years of this
period as superintendent of the Santa Barbara mines at Chihuahua.

From 1888 to 1890 he was employed as engineer for contrac-
tors on railroads being constructed for the Chilean government.

Returning to the United States he was engaged as assistant
engineer on the Michigan Central Railroad; then as general in-
spector in the Bureau of Engineering of the city of Buffalo up to
1898. Since that time and up to his death he was occupied with
varied engineering enterprises. He was a man of kind disposition,
remarkably even temperament, loyal to his friends, kind and con-
siderate to his subordinates. He was unmarried. He is survived
by two brothers and one sister, David E. Whitford, of Syracuse,
N. Y. ; Hiram P. Whitford, and Mrs. Mary E. Rugg, of Saratoga
Springs, N. Y.

Mr. Whitford was elected a member of the American Society
of Civil Engineers, December 6, 1871. He was a charter member
of the Engineers' Society of Western New York.

Samuel J. Fields, Committee,
Engineers' Society of Western Nezv York.

NEW WORKS OF THE BUTTE WATER COMPANY

20I

ButJw^r'r'3"7 pap.fru°n^I'T?e New Works and Water Supply of the
Octobe^fvTx^Ix! No3 15 ^ ^^ * *' ^^ f°?

/ 1 -v^v

Blow-off fur Coil

Pump Station

/ iglrtactiarge

;/■ Uattj lit.surti

£

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

To accompany paper on "The New Works and Water Supply of the
Butte Water Company," hy Charles W. Paine, published in the Journal for
October, 1902, Vol. XXIX, No. 4.

Condensed Profile of Big Hole Extension from South Fork Reservoir to
Big Hole Pumping Station.

NEW WORKS OF THE BUTTE WATER COMPANY.

203

To accompany paper on "The New Works and Water Supply of the
Butte Water Company," by Charles W. Paine, published in the Journal for
October, 1902, Vol. XXIX, No. 4.

COLONEL G. H. MENDELL.

One of the Founders, and First President, of the Technical
Society of the Pacific Coast.

twmXK]

Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.

Association

OF

Engineering Societies.

Organized 1881.

Vol. XXIX. DECEMBER, 1902. No. 6.

This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or for
the statements or opinions of members of the Societies.

TUNNEE CONSTRUCTION UNDER WATER.

By Howard A. Carson, Member Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

[Abstract of informal remarks made at the meeting of the Society,
September 17, 1902.*]
In the East Boston Tunnel the advance excavation consists
of two side-wall drifts, Fig. 1, which are solidly timbered and are
kept from 60 to 150 feet ahead of the shield, so that the walls built
in them will be at least 10 days old when the shield reaches them.
These side walls are built to a height about 16 inches below the
springing line of the arch, Fig. 2. The shield, Fig. ^ resting on
rollers, passes along on these side walls, and the main excavation is
done under the shield. The sixteen rings shown in Fig. 3, omitting
the two central ones, illustrate the positions of the hydraulic jacks
which push the shield. These react against cast-iron rods, Figs. 4
and 7, which are continuously imbedded in the concrete of the arch.
The arch is built under the tail end of the shield and joins the side
walls, and the bottom of the invert is put in later, so that the masonry
is continuous all the way around. Steel ribs, Fig. 5, 2,\ feet apart
support 4-inch lagging, and on that the concrete arch is turned. Fig.
6 shows the positions of the three air-locks. Figs. 3 and 5 show the
rear end of the shield and the cross pieces which serve not only to
strengthen the shield, but as a platform on which the operations
of building the arch are carried on. Figs. 5 and 7 show the
plungers of the jacks. Each plunger, Fig. 7, has at its end a
wooden bulkhead about 2.\ feet high by about 3 feet wide. These
make a continuous dam all around the arch and prevent the fresh
concrete from flowing over toward the shield. At present the air

*The regular paper which had been provided for the evening was post-
poned on account of the absence of some who wished to participate in the
discussion and Mr. Carson was called upon in consequence.

Manuscript received December 11, 1902. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

17

206

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

pressure in advance of the air-locks is about 23 pounds above the
atmosphere, and it has never been above 25. The two lower air-
locks are used for passing out the excavated earth and for carrying
in the concrete. The upper one is entirely for persons, and would
serve as an emergency air-lock in case the lower part of the tunnel
should become filled with water. The shield system employed
in constructing the East Boston Tunnel is essentially the same
as that employed in constructing the tunnel portion of the Boston
Subway, in Tremont Street, the main differences being that in the

CROSS SECTION SHOWING SIDE DRIFTS

EAST BOSTON TUNNEL

Fig. 1.
Tremont Street tunnel the arch was of brickwork instead of con-
crete, and compressed air was not used. The East Boston shield
is taller and stronger than that of Tremont Street, and has more
jacks.

In Paris, for the Metropolitan Subway, built in 1898-99, the
width of the shields was a little less than those of the East Boston
Tunnel, and their height was also less. For the Paris shields the
jacks, instead of being placed near the outer skin of the shield,
were nearer the axis, and, instead of pushing against iron rods.

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION UNDER WATER.

207

buried in the concrete and thus wasted, they reacted against
longitudinal braces which were fastened to the centering. By
having enough of these braces, and by having the farthest one
rigidly connected to the masonry already in, the Paris subway
builders were able to take them out from time to time and use
them over again. The Parisian method does not secure so stiff
a structure for the Jacks to react against, but in most or all of
the Paris tunnels for the Metropolitan Subway the work was very
near the surface of the ground, and, consequently, the weight

CROSS SECTION SHOWING WALL IN DRIFTS

EAST BOSTON TUNNEL

Fig. 2.
on the shield was light. A very interesting feature about a good
deal of the Paris Work is that they turned the upper arch first,
while in Boston the side walls are built first and the shield runs on
them. In Paris the shields were run on a track composed of stout
oak timbers and steel tracks, and the walls underneath were put
in by underpinning. In the center a drift was made and kept a
little in advance of the shield. This allowed them to take the earth
directly from the face of the shield. The masonry of the Paris
work is mainly composed of small stones, ranging in size from that

208

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

of a watermelon to that of a man's fist, laid in cement mortar. Some
little of the structure was made of concrete blocks, which were
molded out beforehand like cut stone. An experiment at making
concrete in connection with the shield by a patented process did not
succeed when first attempted. It may have succeeded since.

The East Boston Tunnel is between 23 and 24 feet wide inside ;
the arch and sides are 30 inches thick, and the invert, generally, 2 feet.
It occasionally happens, however, that the shield departs from the
line or grade, but the bore of the tunnel is always kept true. In

PHASE 4
CROSS SECTION SHOWING SHIELD

EAST BOSTON TUNNEL

Fig. 3.

these cases the wall is of less than the normal thickness on one
side, and of greater than normal thickness on the other. In one
instance the shield got 6 inches out of line. There are 18 feet and
upward of earth between the bottom of the harbor and the top of the
tunnel, but when the harbor shall have been dredged to the 40-foot
level there will be only 5 feet at the Harbor Commissioner's Lines.
The depth of water is 35 feet at low water, and 10 feet more at high
water, and at high-water the distance from the surface of the water
to the bottom of the tunnel is about 88 feet.

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION UNDER WATER.

209

Fig". 8 gives the relative sizes of a number of well-known tunnels
made by the shield process. Among these were the City and South
London, with twin tubes, each 10 feet 3 inches in diameter and part
of the way 10 feet 6 inches; the Glasgow Cableway, a trifle larger;
the Central London Railway, with an inside diameter of 11 feet
6 inches, opened a year or two ago, and the Waterloo and City,
with an inside diameter of 12 feet if inches ; the tunnel under the
St. Clair River, and the Hudson River Tunnel. The latter was
begun in 1880 and was finally abandoned in 1892, when one tube

CROSS SECTION SHOWING CENTRE

EAST BOSTON. TUNNEL

Fig. 4.

had been built about three-quarters of the way across the river.
It is said that a company has been formed to complete the tunnel
and use it for a trolley road. It has been pumped out, and when the
speaker visited the tunnel, about a year ago, to see how the salt
water had affected the cement, the latter appeared to be in excellent
condition.

The East Boston Tunnel is about 2 feet wider on the outside
than the Blackwall Tunnel, and about a foot narrower on the inside.
The Blackwall Tunnel passes under the Thames for about 1200

210 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

feet. The East Boston Tunnel lies under Boston harbor, from the
East Boston side of the South Ferry to Atlantic Avenue, which is
a distance of about 3500 feet, or, taking it to the end of Long
Wharf, something like 2800 feet. The total length of the Blackwall
Tunnel built by one shield was 3100 feet, while on the East Boston
Tunnel it will be in the neighborhood of 4400 feet. For about 400
feet the Blackwall Tunnel passed through gravel, or "ballast," to use
the English term, which communicated directly with the water,

LONGITUDINAL SECTION AT SHIELD

EAST BOSTON TUNNEL

Fig. 5.

and formed the hardest job of tunneling under water of which the
speaker was acquainted. The rest of the way was in very good
material ; some of it in clay very much like that found so generally in
the East Boston Tunnel excavation. Some of the Blackwall Tunnel
was driven through quicksand, which proved admirable material to
work in under compressed air. While passing through the sand
the Blackwall shield averaged a little over 8 feet per day for a num-
ber of months, and on one or two days the progress reached was

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION UNDER WATER.

tr^

CROSS SECTION SHOWING AIR LOCKS

EAST BOSTON TUNNEL

5co/e

Frc. 6.

l.i,.'t;-.'^»\';;i'

r--\V;'V',,^^:^:'i;:.;.'(^!;

£ ~^ " *> ^Concrete * * tf '« ■

Los9,ny--

End Men S Side Urn

SECTION THROUGH HYDRAULIC JACKS
AND PUSH BARS

DETAIL OF PUSH BARS

Fig. 7. Section B, East Boston Tunnel.

12 feet 6 inches. In clay the shield progressed about 4 feet per day.
From the time the Blackwall shield started until it ceased to be
used the progress averaged 3 feet per day. The East Boston Tun-
nel progress was as follows : For the first 6 months in clay, taking
the whole time, an average of 3 feet per day; the next 6 months

212 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

over 4 feet per day, and for the next something over 5 feet per day.
This latter or a greater rate of progress will very likely be main-
tained to the end if no misfortune occurs, and this will bring the
tunnel to Atlantic Avenue before October, 1903.

It seemed a pity that Colonel Haskin, who started the Hudson
River Tunnel, worked so hard on it and who spent his own money
and other people's on it, could not have lived to see it completed. It
was probably his use of compressed air there which led to its use in
horizontal tunneling all over the world. When the accident oc-
curred on the Hudson River Tunnel, involving the loss of 21 lives,
Sir John Fowler said the scheme of working by compressed air was
a faulty one and would not work. Nevertheless, the use of com-
pressed air has changed the whole history of tunneling since that
time.

Two or three years ago, when the construction of the East
Boston Tunnel was first discussed, and before it was actually de-
cided to build it, consideration was given to the plan of excavating
a trench and putting in two tubes from the top. It was originally
intended to have the tunnel near the bed of the harbor and to have
two tubes, each for a single track, instead of having a deep tunnel
with a single tube wide enough for two tracks. Each of the per-
mits given from time to time by the Secretary of War contained
a provision that, if the War Department at any time wished to
deepen the harbor, the tunnel must be moved, if in the way, and,
consequently, in each new scheme the tunnel was planned to be a
little deeper. Finally the Transit Commissioners decided they did
not want two tubes, although they would have been somewhat
cheaper than one, and would have given better grades. The Com-
missioners thought that the public would prefer a tunnel wide
enough for two tracks. The proposed twin single tunnels were
to be each 16 feet wide inside and 18 or 19 feet wide outside. As
it is now, the surface of the harbor is about 90 feet above the
bottom of the masonry. In case a channel had been dredged, it
would have been part of the way through hard-pan or clay con-
taining bowlders, and the amount of excavation per running foot
would have been at least 120 cubic yards. Mr. Perkins, of the
contracting firm of Perkins & White, thought he could do dredging
under these conditions for $1 per yard. This price would amount
to the same that it has cost per running foot for excavation with the
shield. If we assume that in some manner concrete tubes could
have been made, lowered and connected as cheaply as the tube is

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION UNDER WATER.

213

214

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

built by the tunnel process, the cost would be exactly the same as
at present, but there might have been a great saving in time.

Zera Colburn, an American and a genius, who went over to
London and founded the very successful paper called Engineering,
had a scheme for a tunnel across the English channel, briefly out-
lined as follows :

"The tube would be floated, not certainly upon the surface,
but by means of buoys just clear of the bottom, the tube being

again grounded as soon as it had advanced a length

The seaward end of the tube (of great strength) would, of course,
be closed, and it would be provided with suitable fittings for attach-

Fig. 9.

ing the powerful hauling-out tackle to be used when the successive
lengths were floated. The dock gates would close around the tube
so as to form a water-tight joint. The tube would be of such
dimensions and thickness that, previous to putting in the brick lining,
its own weight would be as nearly as possible exactly the same
as that of the sea water displaced, so that of itself it would, so to

speak, neither sink nor swim When a length had been

completed and the tube was ready for launching, its inshore end
would be closed water-tight, the buoys made fast in place, the
dock gates opened and the sea admitted. The tube would then be
drawn up well clear of the bottom by means of the adjustable

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION UNDER WATER. 215

tackle connected with the buoys, and the whole of the tube of what-
ever number of connected lengths of 1000 feet would be drawn
out to sea for a distance corresponding to the length last added."
Another scheme was that of General Foster, who was then
(1870) United States Engineer Officer at Boston. He proposed
sections of tube, closed by bulkheads. The sections were to be
lowered into a dredged trench and then joined by divers, and were
to have suitable packing between the segments. The General
did not state how the divers were to proceed, nor of what the
packing was to consist.

Fig. 10.

In the scheme of Martin and Le Gay, two French engineers,
for a tunnel across the English Channel, the sections of the tunnel
were to be floated into position between two cables running longi-
tudinally, and were to be lowered by other cables, and the joints
were to be made by dumping concrete through the water over the
contiguous ends of the pipes.

Figs. 9, 10 and 11 illustrate the method of laying the syphon
under Shirley Gut, and the outfall of the sewerage system at the
outer end of Deer Island. The Shirley Gut pipes were from 50 to
65 feet long, made of iron and brick, their external diameter being
between 9 and 10 feet. They had tight bulkheads at each end.
They were moved down to low water with blocking and rollers,
as a house is moved. At high water they were dragged off from

2l6

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

their blocking and floated over the place they were to occupy, enough
water was let in to sink them, and they were accurately placed on
the bottom and then bolted together by divers. The sections for
the Deer Island outfall were made of concentric rings of concrete
and brickwork, with wooden staves outside to protect the masonry
from blows and abrasion. These sections were made in cradles
which were placed side of a wharf and above water, and each sec-
tion or pipe weighed about 220,000 pounds. They were lowered
into water by screw bolts, by means of a suitable engine, and were
then towed out half a mile or so to their proper position, sunk on
accurately-placed saddles and connected by divers. The joints be-

Fig. 11.

tween consecutive pipes, both at Shirley Gut and at the outfall, were
made tight by rubber gaskets. The bulkheads were removed at a
later time and the brickwork was made continuous.

The Harlem River pipes of the New York rapid transit system
are to have an internal diameter of 16 feet, and are to be made of
cast-iron surrounded by concrete. The river is about 400 feet
wide at the point where this construction is being put in. A de-
scription of this work has been furnished by Mr. George S. Rice,
a member of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers and Deputy
Chief Engineer of the New York Rapid Transit Commission.*

*Mr. Rice's paper appears in the following discussion. — Secretary, Ass'n
of Eng. Socs.

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION UNDER WATER. 217

DISCUSSION.

John F. O'Rourke, of New York, Director of the American
Society of Civil Engineers. — The method about to be described can
hardly be called tunneling, but when the work is finished the result
is a tunnel. There are conditions where a tunnel, if driven, will
be either too far down or in material which is not secure and
reliable. Nearly all tunnels are too low, and the author believes
that following the designs he is about to explain will result in a
tunnel which will be permanent when completed. He would sug-
gest placing a tunnel as near the surface of the water as the harbor
conditions will permit. The bed of the Harlem River is 2.7 feet below
low water. The regulation for a tunnel there is that it shall be kept
45 feet below low water, providing the tunnel is put in from the sur-
face. By the methods about to be described the tunnel could be put
through there, in soil which is not very secure. The author has
two methods for placing tunnels from the surface down and pro-
viding absolutely secure foundations for them. One method is to
build the tunnel under water, completing the tunnel as a submarine
operation, without any interference with the water or removal of
water until the tunnel is completed. This is an ideal way when
only ordinary depths and ordinary currents are to' be encountered.
Where the conditions as to depth and currents are less favorable,
and where the bottom is insecure, the second method should be fol-
lowed. Both methods of doing the work are by a combination of
different operations that are well known and easily accomplished,
so it is not attempting anything new in the operations themselves,
but getting new results from old methods. The first thing to know
is that you can place concrete under water so that the concrete will
be as good as if placed in air. This has been accomplished. Three
or four years ago the author was building the City Island bridge,
and he had very difficult foundations to place. It was impossible,
especially with the amount of money available, to do the work
except by placing the concrete through water. In a sanguine
moment the speaker promised to get up a concrete box which would
not admit of spilling out the concrete before it got to the bottom.
Fig. 1 illustrates the bucket designed and patented for this purpose.
On the City Island job there were only three cases of failure to
place the concrete properly with these buckets. On this job the
concrete was stopped within 12 feet of high- water level. After the
concrete had been allowed to set for a few days, the water was
pumped out of the structure, and the concrete as found to be
actually as hard as if placed in the air. There were slight irregu-
larities on top, but the concrete was perfectly hard and sound.

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ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

There was absolutely no leak of water. That is an object-lesson
to the effect that concrete can be successfully placed under water.
Fig. 2 illustrates the first method mentioned. The various
steps are ( Section No. i ) dredging a ditch in the bed of a body of
(water for a given length of 200 or 300 feet, and driving piling
for foundation (Section No. 2), driving sheet piling lengthwise

Fig. 1. Bucket for Depositing Concrete.

of the ditch to form a mold and cut off the current, and placing
through the water a bed of concrete of a thickness to- correspond
with the bottom of the tunnel, say 5 or 6 feet. Then divers may
be sent down to smooth off the tunnel invert or a machine may be
made for this cleaning off, but it is not very much of a trick for
a diver to go down with a shovel and pick and do the leveling.

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION UNDER WATER. 219

The next operation (Section No. 3) is to get a center in place.
The center is built on the surface, on platforms on each side, so
that it can be held properly. The center is lowered onto the con-
crete invert already in place. There are various methods of making
the centering. A bulkhead is made at the advanced end of the
trench, but the water all the time remains inside. Concrete to form
the roof and sides is placed through the water (Section No. 4),
and thus one section of the tunnel is made (Section No. 5). For
the next step the operations are repeated. The floor is kept a
little in advance, so that sections break joints, and thus, step by step,
and breaking joints as we go, the tunnel is built. After the tunnel
is finished it is pumped out and any leaks are stopped. By fol-
lowing this plan pumping is avoided until there are concrete walls
on all sides.

In the method just described it is necessary to have sheet
piling extending down 100 feet from the surface. In the Hudson
River this would be impossible, because of the two or three different'
kinds of current existing at different levels and their great strength.
The current will be running up in the top and middle and down at
the bottom and sides, according to the stage of the tide. This was
the case at Poughkeepsie, where the conditions are much the same
as near New York.

The idea in this second scheme is to have something more or
less complete before we attempt to put it in. A man describing him-
self as a newspaper man and an engineer, and as uniting in himself
the facile power of description of the trained writer with the prac-
tical ideas of a thorough engineer, called upon the author and
proposed to build a tunnel 3000 feet long on shore, slide it into the
water and float it into position. Anyone, however, who thinks he
can hold under control a structure like this in the river at this point
with nothing but anchors will be disappointed. The way is not
to make one long jump of it, but to get successive footholds, and
these footholds are cribs. (See Figs. 3 to 8.) Cribs are simple
matters to build, and they have been built in all kinds of rivers.
Even if the cribs are not exactly in line or at the exact depth, it
makes no practical difference, for the tunnel may nevertheless be
placed where it should be. In a general way, the distance between
the crib centers is about 800 feet. This distance is not difficult to
deal with, except on account of the short time available for placing
the tunnel spans between tides, say about half and hour. The cribs
or caissons are constructed and are placed in position at distances
apart corresponding to the lengths of the tunnel sections, and the
sections themselves are then placed in position (with the ends sup-

220

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION UNDER WATER.

221

222 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

ported on cribs), the connection of two adjoining sections being
effected within the crib. Each tunnel section, which may be built
ashore or afloat, as may be most convenient under the circumstances,
comprises a steel tube of suitable form and a sustaining vessel
therefor, which may be constructed of any desired material or shape.
The vessel, with the tube therein, may be ballasted by placing con-
crete (which forms a part of the permanent structure) between the
tube and the vertical walls of the vessel ; and, when it has been
brought to the desired position, it is sunk by adding more concrete
or ballast to the vessel. The concrete at the ends of the tube is
placed after the two sections of the tunnel are in place to form the
joint, and near each end of the tubes one or more working shafts are
carried from the top to give access to the space beneath the tube,
such shafts being continued upward as the vessel and tube are sunk
to place, so that the upper ends of the shafts are always above the
surface of the water. A bulkhead is put in the end of each tube.
While the tubes and their containing vessels are being sunk, they
are guided to their proper line and grade by the shape of the open-
ings made in the walls of the cribs. The cribs are strong enough
to hold the tunnel sections against the tides during sinking. As
the tunnel section sinks, a bulkhead may be carried upward at the
top of the tunnel section between the walls of the crib, to exclude
water currents from the interior of the crib ; or, if conditions permit,
such bulkhead may be placed after the tunnel section has reached
its position of rest, if it be deemed necessary, so .that concrete
deposited through the water may be filled around the ends of the
projecting tubes. When two adjoining tunnel sections have been
thus placed, a temporary joint is made between the abutting ends
of the steel tubes and the masonry is made continuous. When the
tunnel sections have been placed and united, the upper portions
of the cribs or caissons may be removed to the top of the tunnel
sections. The cribs are perfectly constructed in a cellular manner,
being divided by interior vertical walls to form chambers or pockets
for the reception of the ballast necessary to sink the crib. The
crib is also provided with a dredging chamber, through which the
material excavated beneath the crib may be removed as the crib
is sunk to position. A pneumatic caisson, however, may be em-
ployed when the conditions are such as to render its use desirable.
If necessary, a bed for the tunnel sections is dredged in the bottom
of the river prior to their being sunk.

This scheme might easily be applied in sinking the tunnels to
be made by the Pennsylvania, New York and Long Island Railroad.
There are plenty of places on the shore of the river for building

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION UNDER WATER. 223

tunnel sections in 800-foot lengths, and they could then be run
down into the water and towed out at a favorable time and put
into place. All that is necessary is to get the railroad company to
award the contract and furnish the necessary funds.

John Ericson, City Engineer of Chicago. — The question of
subways to accommodate all surface and elevated street railway
traffic in the congested business district is at present being agitated
by the people of Chicago, and, as the general concensus of opinion
favors their construction, it is safe to presume that such subways
will be built, probably in the near future.

Three subways have so far been constructed under the Chicago
River for the cable roads, sewer and water tunnels and conduits for
telephone and telegraph wires. Of the water tunnels the writer
has designed and supervised the construction of about twenty miles,
varying in internal diameter from 5 to 10 feet. These conduits
are generally about ninety feet below the surface, and run through
glacial clay and gravel in the eastern half, and through Niagara
limestone in the western half of the city. Of course, there have
been difficulties in the construction of even these, especially as all
tunnels run from two to four miles under Lake Michigan, where
the bores encounter explosive gases, water, quicksand and friable
clay which will not remain in place, but it was not, of course, so diffi-
cult as constructing the tunnels described by the preceding speakers,
especially if the structure were under a bay of the ocean. Chicago
is also now building an intercepting sewer system, which includes
some large sewers, one being a tunnel 2.\ miles long and 20 feet
internal diameter, which is being worked with hydraulic shields.

The Illinois Telephone and Telegraph Company, a private cor-
poration, is constructing a system of conduits, which are worth
mentioning on account of the skillful way in which they are made
to progress and the little annoyance caused to the public, though said
construction is in the heart of the most congested business quarter,
for it is being built under practically every street in the down-town
district. When this company was organized and undertook to ar-
range for a telephone system, it was found that the streets were so
fully occupied by existing companies that space could hardly be
found for a 6-inch tube, so permission was obtained to construct this
system of tunnels. Basements were rented in large houses along the
line of the proposed system and used entirely for the operations of
construction. The shafts were sunk close to these basements, and
headhouses of galvanized iron, tastefully painted, were erected over
them. The spoil taken from the shafts was stored in the rented
basements and hauled away at -light, so that no material was taken

224 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

through the streets, except after 7 o'clock p.m. Later, the company
built an incline at one of the shafts on the river. At this incline
there was installed an endless conveying chain system, with dogs
constructed in such a manner that they took hold of the axles of
the tunnel cars and conveyed them to the ground surface, where
the material was dumped into scows. At the edge of the river a
system of moving platforms, was erected, and these platforms were
so constructed that they could be raised or lowered for loading the
scows, and thus not interfere with boats going up or down the river
when not in use. This method of handling excavated matter has
been found to be very economical and expeditious. The crown of
the arch of these tunnels is about 30 feet below the street surface,
and in cross-section the conduits are of horseshoe shape, 7 feet 6
inches high by 6 feet wide. The walls and arch are 10 inches
thick, floor 13 inches thick, and are made throughout the entire
system of Portland cement concrete (generally a gravel concrete,
proportions 1 to 6), and are practically impervious to water. Over
12 miles have been completed, and work is progressing rapidly,
as it is intended to build many miles more, carrying the tunnels
under the river into the residence districts of the north, west and
south sides of the city. The writer had supervision .of this work
for the city, and any complaints on account of annoyance would
have been made to him, but so far none have been made ; in fact,
the citizens of Chicago do not appear to be aware that any tunneling
is going on, as all they see of the operations is, once in a while, a
load of cement or gravel dumped into the basement of a house, and,
after this has gone on day after day for a month or so, they begin
to wonder how long it will take to complete the cement floor down
in that cellar. Whether or not this conduit is to be used exclusively
for telephone and telegraph purposes the writer does not know,
as the company has applied for additional privileges, which have not
been granted as yet.

Mr. George S. Rice. — The following description of the work
of constructing the tunnel under the Harlem River for the Rapid
Transit Railroad Commissioners of the City of New York is fur-
nished at the request of Mr. Wm. Barclay Parsons, the Chief En-
gineer of the work.

This two-track tunnel will be the means of connecting Man-
hattan Island with the Borough of the Bronx for the Rapid Transit
Railway, and is now under construction by the contractors, who
have devised the following-described method of doing this work.

Beginning at the west bank of the river and extending across it,
along the line of the tunnel, a strip 50 feet wide at the bottom was

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION UNDER WATER.

225

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226 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

excavated with a dredge to a depth of 39 feet at the center of the
river, at which point it is about 10 feet above sub-grade. From this
point the bottom of the dredged channel runs along parallel to the
sub-grade until it reaches the rock surface at the west end. Sub-
stantial timber piers or platforms, supported by piles, were built on
each side of the tunnel line, and waling strips were bolted to the sides
of the piles at such a distance that they furnish a guide for the
outside of the heavy 12-inch sheathing, which was afterwards driven
to form the sides of the coffer dam. The maximum width, from
inside to inside of this sheathing, is 33 feet. These platforms serve
a double purpose, both as working platforms to carry derricks and
materials of construction, and also as a means of steadying the
sheathing and the timber frame-work which supports it, thereby
enabling the contractor to build his coffer dam, both open and cov-
ered, true to line and grade. These platforms extend only to' the
middle of the river at present, thereby leaving half of the channel
open to traffic.

Beginning at the west bank of the river, for a distance of 200
feet, it is proposed to conduct the construction work in an open
trench extending above the high-water mark. This trench is
sheathed, at the river end, with 12-inch sheathing, driven in sets of
three-12 x 12-inch hard pine timber bolted together, and with strips
forming a tongue on one side and a groove on the other. At the
shore end the sheathing was not so heavy, being 6 inches thick. At
its east end, where the sheathing is 12 inches thick, it is supported
by eight rows of cross timbers, the lower timbers being 16 inches
square, and diminishing as they come up, until the top row is com-
posed of 16 x 8-inch timbers. These cross braces are horizontally
10 feet apart, and butt against 16 x 16-inch waling strips at the
bottom and 6 x 12-inch strips at the top. At the end of this
stretch, station 140 -f- 71, the open trench method is abandoned,
and instead two rows of sheet piling, one on either side, are driven
and sawed off under the water at about the level of the top of our
tunnel. Over this is placed a wooden roof, the idea being, when
this is constructed, to pump the water out of this box and construct
the tunnel inside of it. The method of building this wooden box is
as follows :

At station 142 -f- 06, the bulkhead is constructed 12^ feet
wide, and long enough to extend across the tunnel. All four sides
are sheathed with 12 x 12-inch timbers, driven as described above, in
sets of three. Bents of piles of four each, spaced 8 feet apart, were
driven between stations 140 -\- 71 and 142 -f- 06. These piles were
then sawed off at a point just below the bottom of the timber roof,

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION UNDER WATER

227

capped and braced by means of divers. The bracing for the sheath-
ing, consisting of three tiers of braces, the bottom one 16 x 16
inches, the top one 12 x 12 inches, were put together with the
necessary waling strips and appurtenances, floated into position
over these nests of piles and sunk into position resting on longi-
tudinal strips, which had already been bolted to the piles at the
proper height. The waling strips for this bracing range from
16 x 16 inches to 12 x 12 inches, and the whole frame- work was
very thoroughly tied together by diagonal braces. Work was now

£i^=^ /

% ""Diameter "Tbacher Rods", IS"
Brick laid.in. Hot. Asphalt

Fig. 2. Typical Section of Concrete Arch, East Approach to Harlem

River Tunnel.

Scale, 1 = 120.

begun, driving the 12-inch side sheathing. It was proposed to use
a set of steel piles equipped with a water jet, to serve as guide piles,
and break the ground preparatory to driving the timber sheathing.
So far, it has not been found necessary to use these steel piles. The
side sheathing having been driven into position, the next step was
to saw off the same to the level of the bottom of the timber roof.
This timber roof is 40 inches thick, consisting of three layers of
12 x 12-inch timbers, separated by two layers of 2-inch tongued
and grooved planking, all securely spiked together. When this

228

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION UNDER WATER. 229

timber roof is in place and has been caulked, and when all joints
have been caulked from the outside by the diver and the bulkhead
at both ends of the strip is completed, the partition between the bulk-
head and the box will be removed, and the water will be pumped
out. The bottom will then be excavated to sub-grade, an additional
row of braces put in and everything will be in readiness for the
construction of the tunnel, the same as in open air.

The timber roof is to be weighted down, and earth is to be
banked up on the outside of the sheathing, so that, if it is found
necessary to prevent the clayey bottom from blowing, the contrac-
tors can put on air and prosecute the work as in a caisson. Through
this stretch, as above described, the tunnel section is entirely of con-
crete. From the bulkhead at station 142 -j- 06, for a distance of 450
feet, which takes us to the other side of the river channel, the con-
struction will consist of a double cast-iron tube, with a cast-iron
diaphragm between, surrounded with concrete. The method of con-
structing the timber box, from the bulkhead at station 142 -|- 06 to
the one at the centre of the river, a distance of 225 feet, is the same
as described in the stretch which preceded, the only differences being
in the height of the tunnel and in its width, which is considerably
less. On the stretch from 140 -f- 71 to 142 -}- 06, it was found that
the sheathing was so thoroughly toed into the clay below sub-grade
that it has been considered advisable to construct this stretch
of tunnel in open cut, and additional braces have been placed at the
top of the sheathing preparatory to doing so.

The same method of construction will later be extended from
the bulkhead at the centre of the river towards the east as soon as
the west half is completed, so that traffic can be diverted to that side
of the river, thus permitting the closing of the east channel.

This work has progressed at the present time to the following
points : From the centre of the river to the west bank almost all
of the side sheathing is in ; two bulkheads have been constructed
and sheathed. The interior bracing and piles supporting it are in
place, and the work of sawing off the sheathing in the stretch in
the river channel, where the box method is to be used, has been
begun, and is progressing satisfactorily. The open trench west
of station 140 -|- 71 is completely sheathed and braced, except that
the bulkhead which was to have been constructed at 140 -J- 71 has
been omitted, because the next stretch is to be taken out in open cut.
Everything is now ready to pump out the trench from the west bank
to the bulkhead at 142 + 06. After this is done, there is only a
small amount of excavation to be made at the bottom, when con-
struction work can begin.

230 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

THE EFFICIENCY OF SOME ROCKY MOUNTAIN COALS.

By W. H. Williams. Member Montana Society of Engineers.

[Read before the Society, October n, 1902.*]

It has seemed to the writer that comparative tests of the coals
commonly used in Montana would be of considerable service to
the coal users of the State. Such tests have been made on most
of the coals sold in the State by private parties for their own in-
formation; but their data have not been published, and so are of
no value to the general public. The average consumer knows
nothing of the fuel value of the coal he is using, and frequently
pays as much for inferior coal as he would for the best in the
market. Tests of this kind, to be of value, should be made by
disinterested parties, with all necessary equipment and under con-
ditions uniform for all the samples tested.

The tests from which the following data are taken were made
under the supervision of the writer by three seniors of the Mon-
tana State- College — Messrs. Lee Williams, C. F. Hutton and Wm.
Schabarker. The chemical analyses were further supervised by
Dr. F. W. Traphagen. In order to get representative samples of
coal and to prevent it's picking by shippers, lots of coal were pur-
chased (usually a carload) in the open market, ostensibly for the
current fuel supply of the college power plant, and without the
knowledge of shippers that the coal was to be used for test pur-
poses. While an unusually poor car of coal may sometimes be
obtained in this manner, and thus misrepresent the mine, it is
undoubtedly the fairest to all concerned. The eleven samples of
Montana coals represent practically every productive mine of any
magnitude in the State, while the three samples of outside coals
represent pretty accurately the various coals shipped into the State
at the present time from Wyoming and Canada. Rock Springs
coal, for example, fairly represents the Kemmerer and Diamond-
ville coals, as tests made by private parties on these three coals
show them to be practically the same in efficiency.

All the tests were run in accordance with the Code of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Each run was of ten
hours duration, using, as nearly as possible, the full rated power of
the boiler. The "alternate" method of starting and stopping was
used throughout. The boiler used was a newly installed Abendroth
& Root water-tube boiler of 129.6 rated horse-power, with 34
square feet of grate surface and 1296 square feet of water heating

*Manuscript received November 11, 1902. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.

EFFICIENCY OF SOME ROCKY MOUNTAIN COALS. 231

surface. The furnaces were fitted with the McClave shaking and
dumping grate. The boiler was in perfect condition, both inside
and out, and was well cleaned before the beginning of each test
run. The firing was done by an experienced fireman, — the same
person firing for all tests.

The coal and ash were weighed on a pair of platform scales.
The water was weighed in two galvanized iron tanks of 150 gal-
lons each. The temperature of the feed water was taken by means
of a Fahrenheit thermometer in an oil well placed, between the
heater and the boiler.

The steam pressure, gauge height and fire were kept as nearly
uniform as possible, the variations in either case being small. The
quality of the steam was determined by a Carpenter throttling
calorimeter placed in a vertical steam main close to the drum.
Calorimeter readings were taken every thirty minutes, the average
reading being taken to represent the quality. The steam pressure
was recorded every fifteen minutes.

The sampling of the coal was done in the following manner:
From every barrow load of coal a shovelful was taken ; this
was broken so as to pass through a sieve of quarter-inch mesh, and,
by repeated quartering, enough was obtained to fill two one-quart
glass fruit jars, this being used for chemical analysis and de-
termination of the calorific value. Fifty pounds of the remainder
was put into a galvanized iron tub, placed over the boiler and dried,
to determine the approximate moisture. At the end of one week
this was re-weighed, the loss in weight being the approximate
moisture. In general, this was about three-fourths of the moisture
determined by chemical analysis.

The approximate chemical analysis was made in the following
manner: A sample was taken from the quart jar, and ground to
pass through a twenty-mesh sieve ; two grammes of this was put
in a porcelain crucible and placed in an oven at 105 degrees C. ; at
this temperature it required from forty to sixty minutes to drive
off the moisture. The crucible was then covered and the volatile
matter driven off by the flame of a Bunsen burner. After this it
was reduced to ash by a blast lamp, the loss being the fixed carbon
and the remainder the ash. Special care was taken in the analysis
and everything was done in duplicate, agreeing in all cases to
0.3 per cent. The calorific values were determined by an improved
Mahler bomb calorimeter, which was checked up before and after
the tests. Here, also, samples were run in duplicate.

In all cases every precaution was taken to obtain correct re-
sults, and to get, as nearly as possible, the true values of the
different coals.

232

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

The following tables, "Summary of Technical Tests" and
"Summary of Efficiencies/' give all the essential data regarding
the different coals :

Summary of Chemical Tests.

No.

2

3

4
5
6

7
8

9
io
ii

12

13
14

KIND OF COAL.

Mountain House Nut...
Mountain House Lump.

Red Lodge Lump

Bridger Lump

Sheridan, Wyo., Lump..,
Red Lodge Washed Nut
Chestnut Washed M. R..,

Gebo Lump

Bridger Nut

Trail Creek (Kountz's) .

Belt Washed Nut

Gait Lump

Rock Springs Lump

Mountain Side, M. R

Combustible.

Vola- Fixed
tile. Carbon

25.92

25-34
26.24
26.55
26.78
26.15
23.IO
21.46
30.00
26.24
22.65
24.28
27.90
26.84

48.85
52.62

52.39
54.00
46 40
53-52
50.18
47.40
50.64

47-65
55.00

57-45
61.31
49.91

Total.

74 77
77.96
78.63
80.55
73-i8
79.67
73-28
68.86
80.64
73-89
77-65
Si-73
89.21

76.75

Mois-
ture.

9.04
8-75
9-23
7.67
2I.20

9-05
864
6.42

3-95
12.41

4-23
8.00

5-64
2.71

Ash.

16.19
13.29
12.14
II.78
5.62
II 28
1808
24.72
15 41

l3-7°

18.12
10.12

5-i5
20.54

Heat Units
Combustible.

Calo-

B. T. U.

7534-0
7734-0
7245-0
7465.O
7006.0
7205.0
8407.6
8241.0

7*95-5
7167.0

7445- o
7421.7
7686.0
7918.0

13562.0
13921.0
13042.0
13438.0
12611.0
12970.0

I5I33-7
14834.0
12952.0
12901.0
13402.0
I3359-0
13836.0
14252.0

Summary of Efficiencies.

No.

3

4
5
6

7
8

9
10
11
12
13
14

NAME OF COAL.

Trail Creek (Mountain House)
Nut

Trail Creek (Mountain House)
Lump

Red Lodge Lump

Bridger Lump

Sheridan, Wyo., Lump

Red Lodge Washed Nut

Chestnut Washed M. R

Gebo Lump

Bridger Nut

Trail Creek ( Kountz's) Lump..

Belt Washed Nut

Gait, Canada, Lump

Rock Springs, Wyo., Lump

Mountain Side, M. R...

•a *r

u

"0 u 0
« oi.C .• «-•

2.8K

> V

V 0

por
t 21
ren

Lbs

ost

.Sjrt

0.

5 <*£ u

> 0 —

j >-■ 0

vr

$2.85

4-65 $0

3°6

#2.68

4.15

5-7°

360

3.28

4-50

6.50

345

374

4-5°

6.10

371

3-51

5-5o

5 01

547

2.88

3-75

5-40

346

3"

3-°5

5-3o

288

3-o5

4.00

5-75

346

3-31

3-75

4.86

386

2.80

4-50

5-44

413

3-l3

t4-5o

5.60

400

3.22

f6.5o

6.05

535

3-49

13- 75

7-55

447

4-35

3-4o

5-78

294

3-32

:=>-3

• o
f-U

IO,I4I

10,863

IO,255

10,824

9,229

IO,332
1 1 , 090
IO,2I5
10,444

9,533
10,406
10,919
12,343
10,938

g*

44.27

5000
61.00
5430
52.40
50.60
46.50
54-40
44.80
55-oo
52 00

S3-10
59.00
51.00

♦Compared to Chestnut Washed Mine Run. t Price in Butte.

As will be seen from the tables, the most economical steam
coals were the Chestnut and Mountain Side. These are mined on
the properties recently acquired by the Northern Pacific railway.
The Sheridan and Gait coals are the least economical of the lot.
In fact, they are so expensive as to be out of the question as
steam coals. The Gait coal also makes such bad clinkers as to rule
it out as a steam coal.

EFFICIENCY OF SOME ROCKY MOUNTAIN COALS. 233

The tables show pretty conclusively that a great many coals
are being sold for more than they are worth in the markets of the
State. For instance, the lump coals from Trail Creek, Red Lodge,
Bridger and Gebo usually retail at $4.25 to $5.00 per ton, while
Gait, Sheridan and Rock Springs lump bring from $6.00 to $6.75
per ton. As a matter of fact, Sheridan coal is worth less, Gait
about the same and Rock Springs about $1.00 per ton more than
those first named.

Coal users would do well to consult this table of efficiencies
when purchasing fuel. It is likely to save them some money.
Large consumers would save money by purchasing coal on test
showings. It is not a very difficult matter to rig up a boiler, or a
battery of boilers, for testing purposes, and it will pay to test coal
in a rational manner. The amount of water evaporated per pound
of coal is the only true test of its fuel value. The testimony of the
average fireman is utterly unreliable on this point. Nor does
chemical analysis show what the coal may do under a boiler. The
Gait coal, for example, shows better by chemical analysis than
either the Red Lodge or Bridger lump coals, yet under a boiler it
is poorer than either of them, largely owing to the bad clinker
which is formed.

Incidentally, these tests show that there is not a coal mined in
Montana, at the present time, that will evaporate seven pounds of
water from and at 212 degrees F. The nut and Mine Run coals,
which are used mostly for steam purposes, will evaporate only five
pounds to six pounds. I am aware that some tests made by private
parties have shown higher results than we have been able to get;
but in every case of this kind either the coals were picked or else
the furnace was of some special construction conducing to fuel
economy. We took pains to make these tests under good repre-
sentative service conditions, — such conditions as might and should
prevail at every steam plant in this State.

234 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

OBITUARY.

Colonel G. H. Mendell.

Member of the Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

Colonel George H. Mendell was called to his last rest on
October 19, 1902. His death followed a very brief illness and
marked the termination of an active, useful life.

He was born in Pennsylvania October 12, 1831 ; graduated
from the U. S. Military Academy in 1852, and was in active service
in the Engineer Corps of the U. S. Army from that time until his
retirement in 1895. He was Assistant Topographical Engineer on
the survey of the northwestern lakes in 1852-54, then on the staff
of Major-General Wool, commanding the Department of the Pacific
in 1854, at which time the advantages of the Pacific Slope made a
lasting impression on his mind.

He was thereafter assistant on a railway exploration survey
from San Francisco to Fort Yuma, and later, in 1855 and 1856, on
an expedition against hostile Indian tribes in Oregon and Wash-
ington Territories. From 1856 to 1858 he was in charge of the
construction of military roads in Oregon and Washington Terri-
tories. He was then called to the Military Academy at West Point
and served there as Assistant and Principal Assistant Professor of
Natural and Experimental Philosophy.

At the outbreak of the war of the Rebellion he was assigned
to Colonel Miles' Division in the Manassas campaign, and there-
after rendered valuable service on special duty and in command of
the U. S. Engineers' Battalion in reconnoissance work, building,
guarding and destroying bridges, constructing batteries, block
houses, rifle trenches, making and repairing roads and in carrying
on siege operations at Petersburg, Va. He was Assistant Engineer
on the defenses of Baltimore, Md., in 1864. After again serving as
instructor in the Military Academy for a year, to which duty he had
been assigned to recover from disabilities incurred in the field, he
was for a brief period Superintending Engineer" of harbor defense
works at New Bedford, Mass., and of the work for the preserva-
tion of Plymouth Beach.

On January 1, 1867, he took charge of the fortification work
of Alcatraz Island and Lime Point, in San Francisco Harbor, and,
soon after, of the defenses at the mouth of Columbia River and of
Fort Point, San Francisco.

OBITUARY. 235

His subsequent active work on the Pacific Coast is so well
known to our members that but little further need be said, other
than that his activity was not confined to his Government work,
which included the Wilmington Harbor breakwater, examination
and survey of Estero Bay and San Diego Harbor, the removal of
Rincon Rock in San Francisco Bay, the improvement of Oakland
Harbor and of Sacramento and Feather Rivers and of the construc-
tion of San Francisco Harbor defenses.

Colonel Mendell was a member of the Commission appointed
in 1874 to examine the irrigation possibilities in California. He
was a member and President of the first California Debris Com-
mission to regulate hydraulic mining. He was on the Commission
to select a site for a naval dry dock on the Pacific Coast north of
Latitude 42 degrees, and on the Commission to select a site for a
military post in San Diego, Cal., and of the Board of Engineers
for the planning of Pacific Coast defenses.

. Colonel Mendell was consulted by the city and county of San
Francisco in reference to the sufficiency of the City Hall concrete
foundation. He was in 1876-77 entrusted by this city with the
examination of possible sources of water supply and made an ex-
haustive report, which has proved of great value to the city. From
1878 to 1880 he was Consulting Engineer to the State of California,
acting as an adviser to the State Engineer, who was charged with
the investigation of irrigation, drainage and mining debris prob-
lems. He was also a member of the Sewerage Commission for the
city and county of San Francisco, appointed in 1892 by the Board
of Supervisors.

At the time of his retirement he was the Senior Colonel in the
Engineer Corps of the U. S. Army.

Among the works with which he was more or less prominently
connected as Consulting Engineer subsequent to his retirement
may be mentioned the Portland Water Works, the appraisement of
the Los Angeles Water Works, examination of the water supply
possibilities for Berkeley, a drainage project for Reclamation Dis-
trict, No. 108, in the Sacramento Valley, and the Red Bluff Water
Works.

He was selected by Mayor James D. Phelan to serve under a
new city charter as President of the first Board of Public Works
for the city and county of San Francisco from January 8, 1900, for
three years. His efficient service in organizing this new depart-
ment, which benefited by his long experience, his thoroughness as
an engineer and his ripe judgment, are thoroughly appreciated by

236 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

those who have been in position to judge of results. His term of
office was drawing to a close at the time of his death.

Colonel Mendell was one of the founders of this Society. His
attainments and his standing in his profession were fittingly recog-
nized when he was made our first President in 1884. He served
in this capacity for two terms.

Our estimate of Colonel Mendell's worth and appreciation of
his professional work is fittingly expressed in the words of the
Chief of the Engineers Corps of the U. S. Army, who, in sending
out notice of his death, says :

"Colonel Mendell's record for distinguished service, his high
attainments, his purity of life and his sincerity of purpose in all
matters relating to either private or public official work have never
been excelled by any officer whose record has appeared upon the
rolls of the army."

C. E. Grunsky,
Marsden Manson,
Otto von Geldern,

Committee.

Association

OF

Engineering Societies.

Vol. XXIX. JULY, 1902. No. i.

PROCEEDINGS.

Engineers' Clnb of Minneapolis.

158TH Meeting, Minneapolis, June 14, 1902. — This meeting was in
the nature of an inspection of the New Pumping Station being built by
the city of Minneapolis. Mr. Geo. W. Sublette, City Engineer, under
whose supervision the work is being done, showed the members the work
completed to date. This consisted of the intake foundations for the
entrance of water from the river and the foundations for the pumps and
boiler house. These foundations are on piles placed in a clay and
treacherous soil, calling for large, broad and costly foundations.

When this new pumping station is completed and two 15,000,000-
gallon Holly pumps installed, the lower or city pumps will be abandoned
and Minneapolis will be assured of a better and an ample supply of water.

The Club inspected the foundations and the plans, and discussed the
merits of the construction, adjourning after a vote of thanks to the City
Engineer.

159TH Meeting, Minneapolis, July 19, 1902. — This meeting was in
the nature of an inspection of engineering on the North Side.

The Club first visited the old Camden place pumping station. There
are installed here two Worthington horizontal 10,000,000-gallon pumping
engines and Morison internal furnace boilers, burning green and wet
ground pine refuse in a Dutch oven, the fuel being fed automatically.

The trip embraced a visit to the C. A. Smith Lumber Co.'s immense
saw mill, which is equipped with the most modern machinery and uses
every scrap of the pine log for some useful purpose. The box industry
was of special interest. Here board boxes were sawed, resawed, planed,
tongued and grooved, fitted together and nailed, all automatically, and
then delivered "knock down" ready for shipment.

The city garbage crematory, built from designs and patents of
DeCarrie, was also inspected. This crematory is a success, operates
cheaply and well, and entirely without odor.

From notes in the minutes of the Club by

W. S. Pardee, Secretary pro tern.

MEMBERS ARE ADVISED . .
THAT THEY CAN OBTAIN

Reprints or Extra Copies of their Papers

AT THE FOLLOWING RATES:

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An extra charge will be made for printing and in-
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pages as the text, and for enameled paper, when this is
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When reprints are wanted, notice of the fact, stat-
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If the paper has been discussed, please state whether
it is desired that the reprint shall contain the discussion.

JOHN C. TRAUTWINE, Jr., Secretary,

257 SOUTH FOURTH STREET,
PHILADELPHIA.

Association

OF

Engineering Societies.

Vol. XXIX. AUGUST, 1902. No. 2.

PROCEEDINGS.

Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

Regular Meeting, San Francisco, Cal, August i, 1902. — Held in the
hall of the Mechanics' Library, and called to order at 8.30 p.m., by Past-
President Grunsky.

The minutes of the last regular meeting were not read, the record book
having been misplaced by the office attendant.

Mr. R. G. Doerfling applied for membership, proposed by Hermann
Barth, C. E. Grunsky and Otto von Geldern.

Mr. Ralph Warner Hart addressed the Society on the subject of "Steel
Construction of Tall Buildings," which was discussed.

The paper by Mr. John Richards on "Rotative Pumping," having been
circulated for discussion, was responded to by L. J. Le Conte and A. E.
Chodzko, whose written discussions were read by the Secretary.

Meeting adjourned.

Otto von Geldern, Secretary.

MEMBERS ARE ADVISED . .
THAT THEY CAN OBTAIN

Reprints or Extra Copies of their Papers

AT THE FOLLOWING RATES:

Covers
4 pages or less 5 to 8 pages 9 to 16 pages 17 to 24 pages extra.

100 Copies

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6.50

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4.50

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12.50

21.00

4.50

An extra charge will be made for printing and in-
serting such illustrations as are not printed on the same
pages as the text, and for enameled paper, when this is
used, but it is of course impossible to name rates for
this in advance.

When reprints are wanted, notice of the fact, stat-
ing how many are desired and whether they are to be
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it is sent to the Secretary of the Association.

If the paper has been discussed, please state whether
it is desired that the reprint shall contain the discussion.

JOHN C. TRAUTWINE, Jr., Secretary,

257 SOUTH FOURTH STREET,
PHILADELPHIA.

Association

OF

Engineering Societies.

Vol. XXIX. SEPTEMBER, 1902. No. 3.

PROCEEDINGS.

Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

Boston, September 17, 1902. — A regular meeting of the Boston
Society of Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple,
at 8 o'clock p.m. Vice-President Frederick Brooks in the chair; ninety-
eight members and visitors present.

The record of the last meeting was read and approved.

Messrs. Edward A. Buss, Frank B. Dowst, Benj. W. Ellis, Edward
J. Johnson, Samuel J. Mott, Calvin B. Pratt and George V. White, were
elected members of the Society.

The Secretary read a communication from the Superintendent of the
Tremont Temple, asking the Society to change the date of its October
meeting on account of a large convention, which desired the use of all the
halls in the Temple during the third week in October.

On motion of Mr. French it was voted to hold the next regular
meeting on October 226..

The Chairman announced the death of Frank E. Fuller, and, on
motion, the President was requested to appoint a committee to prepare
a memoir.

Mr. Howard A. Carson then gave a very interesting account of vari-
ous methods used in constructing tunnels under water and spoke par-
ticularly of the work of the East Boston Tunnel now in progress. The
talk was illustrated by lantern slides.

Mr. John F. Rourke, of New York, a Director of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, was then introduced and spoke entertainly of
two methods of tunnel construction which he had planned. He illustrated
his remarks by a number of lantern slides. At the conclusion of his re-
marks the thanks of the Society were extended to him for his courtesy
in appearing before the Society.

Mr. John Ericson, City Engineer, of Chicago, was introduced and
gave a brief account of the tunnels now under construction in the streets
of Chicago for telephone purposes.

Adjourned. S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.

ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

San Francisco, September 5, 1902. — Regular meeting, of the Technical
Society of the Pacific Coast called to order at 8.30 o'clock p.m., by President
D. C. Henny.

The minutes of the last regular meeting and of the June meeting
were read and approved.

Mr. R. G. Doerfling, a civil and mechanica'l engineer, was elected to
membership in the Society upon a count of ballots.

Mr. John Richards, consulting mechanical engineer, brought up the
subject of Bay Steamers, and the adequacy of the present construction for
the purpose, with special reference to the San Francisco Ferry Steamer
"Tamalpais" ; drawing comparisons between different types, such as
paddle-wheel steamers, wheels with feathering blades and screw pro-
pellers. The matter of the machinery was also discussed, referring to the
beam engine as the most practical and effective and to the direct oscillat-
ing cylinders as the most economical and space-saving designs. The
preference for any particular type being usually a matter of evolution in
the particular locality in which it was made use of.

The position of the consulting engineer and his relation to the boat
builders and designers were also made a matter of special criticism, and
the final conclusions were submitted to open discussion, which was taken
part in by Geo. W. Dickie and C. E. Grunsky.

Mr. Dickie referred to the matter of papers for the Society, stating
that more energy would have to be shown in obtaining them, if the meet-
ings are expected to be well attended. The Secretary stated that Pro-
fessor C. B. Wing, of Stanford University, had informed him by letter that
Mr. F. S. Edinger had promised a paper for the October meeting on the
"Erection and Field Riveting of Modern Steel Bridges," which could not
be obtained in time for the September meeting.

The unfortunate death of our fellow member A. Schierholz was an-
nounced, and it was agreed, subsequent to the meeting, that Geo. W.
Dickie, C. E. Grunsky, H. D. Connick and Otto von Geldern form a
committee to draw and submit suitable resolutions in memory of the
deceased member.

Likewise were expressions of regret recorded for the late James
Spiers, who had been a member of the Technical Society for many years,
from its first organization and opening of the charter, and who resigned
for reason of ill health about six months ago.

Resolutions in memory of these two able engineers and worthy men
are to be recorded and spread upon the minutes.

Adjourned.

Otto von Geldern, Secretary.

As

SOCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Vol. XXIX. OCTOBER, 1902. No. 4.

PROCEEDINGS.

Engineers' Club of St. Louis.

547TH Meeting, St. Louis, September 17, 1902. — Held at the rooms of
the Club, 709 Pine street, at 8 p.m.

Present, twenty-one members and four visitors. In the absence of the
President and Vice-President, the meeting was called to order by the Sec-
retary. Mr. B. H. Colby was elected as Chairman of the meeting.

The minutes of the 546th meeting were read and approved. The minutes
of the 332d, 333d and 334th meetings of the Executive Committee were read.
The minutes of the 6th, 9th, 10th, nth, 12th and 13th meetings of the Gov-
erning Board were read.

The applications of Messrs. A. H. S. Cantlin, Frank T. Adler and D. Ed-
ward MacCarthy were read and referred to the Executive Committee.
Messrs. L. F. Goodale and A. P. Greensfelder were, on ballot, elected to
membership.

The Secretary read a communication from Mr. J. A. Ockerson, Chief
of the Department of Liberal Arts, Louisiana Purchase Exposition Com-
pany ; the matter was referred to the Executive Committee for their sugges-
tions and recommendations.

The Prize Committee submitted a report, which was accepted. Upon
motion the Chairman was instructed to appoint a committee to revise the
rules governing the award of an annual prize so as to eliminate the feature
of a gold medal. The Chairman appointed Mr. Roper on this committee.

The Secretary read an invitation to the Jubilee Meeting of the North
of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers to attend the
jubilee meeting in connection with the annual meeting of the Institute of
Mining Engineers, and also to attend a conversazione of the same society.

On motion, duly seconded, a vote of thanks was tendered to the St.
Louis Railway Club for its invitation to the Engineers' Club to join them in
their excursion to the World's Fair Grounds on September 12th.

The Chairman then introduced Mr. Burt Cole, who read a paper on

''Bituminous Coal Mining in Illinois." For the year ending July 1, 1901.

there were 915 mines in operation in Illinois, employing over 44,000 men and

rid mining about 26,000,000 tons. The death rate from accident was

8 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

about 2.2 per one thousand employes, or one death for 269,000 tons. Nearly
60 per cent, of the deaths are due to falling rock, coal or slate. Coal is mined
by two general systems : the long- wall and the pillar-and-room system.
The long-wall system requires thin veins, an elastic roof, and considerable
refuse ; it mines about 90 per cent, of the coal. The system is used in a few
mines in the northern part of the state. The pillar-and-room method is the
more common method, but mines only about 50 per cent, of the coal. This
system of mining was described in considerable detail. By means of lantern-
slides, surveys of mines using this system were shown, and the method of
ventilating described.

Mechanical haulage is rapidly replacing mule haulage along the main
entry. The endless rope, tail rope and electric systems of haulage were de-
scribed. A number of machines for undercutting coal were illustrated and
their use was explained. The methods of surveying were given in some
detail, and the paper closed with a few remarks on the labor conditions.

In the discussion which followed Messrs. Fish, Freeman, Barwick,
Bausch, Russell and others participated.

The meeting then adjourned to an adjoining room, where a lunch had
been provided by the Entertainment Committee.

D. W. Roper, Secretary.

549TH Meeting, St. Louis, October 15, 1902. — Held at the rooms of the
Club, 709 Pine street, at 8.25 p.m. Vice-President Van Ornum presiding.

Present, twenty-three members and five visitors.

The minutes of the 548th meeting were read and approved. The applica-
tion for membership of Louis C. F. Metzger was read and referred to the
Executive Committee.

The subject of the evening was a paper by Dr. A. P. Winston on "The
Good and Evil of Trades Unions." The speaker discussed the different
methods of regulating wages and the advantages and disadvantages of each
system both to the workmen and their employers. An interesting discussion
followed the paper in which Messrs. Hermann, Moore, Bouton, Van Ornum,
Reber, Wheeler, Bryan and Colby participated.

The meeting adjourned to an adjoining room where light lunch was

served- E. B. Fay, Secretary pro tern.

Engineers'' Club of Minneapolis.

i6oth Meeting, Minneapolis, September 13, 1902. — This meeting was
in the nature of an inspection of the extensive quarries of the Minnesota
Sandstone Company. These quarries are on the Kettle River, about 100
miles north of Minneapolis, at Sandstone, Minn.

Transportation was provided by courtesy of the Great Northern Railway
Company, who set aside a special car for the thirty-five members and ten
visitors who attended.

The Minnesota Sandstone Company, through its manager, George W.
Bestor, and Secretary Charles S. Hale, entertained the members of the
Club in the proper style. Everything was provided for the Club in a
social way, and the engineering and geological features of the quarries were
shown to their advantage.

PROCEEDINGS. 9

The power plant for the quarries has a 300 H. P. turbine and about 200
H. P. in engine capacity. Compressed air is used extensively for drilling
and moving the material. The stone is used extensively for general building
purposes, bridge abutments, for curbing and as a paving material. In the
latter case the blocks are cut and dressed in much the same manner as for
other stone pavements, but are more uniform in size and have better dressed
faces. The pavement is not slippery and open joints are not necessary to
give a footing.

The stone is extensively used in the state. The quarrying of same and
a study of the stone at the quarries was therefore of great interest to the
members of the Club.

The following members, all residing in Minneapolis, have been elected
and have qualified as active members of the Club : G. R. Scott, electrician at
Court House and City Hall ; J. E. Egan, civil engineer and surveyor ; H. G.
Decker, estmator with American Bridge Company; Hugo Arnold, architect
with F. D. Orff; N. W. Rose, student in Mechanical Engineering, State
University; Frank H. Nutter, landscape architect; W. C. Kaercher, drafts-
man, American Bridge Company ; J. J. Flohil, draftsman, American Bridge
Company; O. P. Bailey, draftsman, American Bridge Company; M. B.
Stone, draftsman, American Bridge Company; W. F. Burrill, draftsman,
American Bridge Company.

Net gain in 1902 membership, twenty-eight.

Edward P. Burch, Secretary.

Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

Boston, October 22, 1902. — A regular meeting of the Boston Society
of Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple, at 8 p.m.,
President George A. Kimball in the chair; fifty-eight members and visitors
present.

The record of the last meeting was read and approved.

Messrs. Willard Kent and Morton F. Sanborn were elected members,
and Mr. Charles S. Robbins was elected an associate of the Society.

A letter was read from Mr. Alfred D. Flinn, resigning the office of Li-
brarian of the Society on account of removal to New York city. The
resignation was accepted.

On motion of Professor Allen the President was requested to appoint a
committee of three to nominate a candidate for Librarian. The committee
appointed consisted of Messrs. A. H. French, R. A. Hale and F. M. Miner.

The Secretary read a communication from Mr. J. A. Ockerson, Chief of
Department of Liberal Arts of the World's Fair, at St. Louis, urging the
Society to take such steps as may be deemed necessary to make a creditable
exhibit at the exposition of the work of its members. On motion of Mr.
Stearns, it was voted to refer the matter to the Board of Government with
full powers.

On motion of Mr. Higgins, the thanks of the Society were voted to the
Water Commissioners and the Superintendent of the Natick Water Works,
and to the contractors engaged in the work, Mr. F. A. Snow and Messrs.

io ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

McClellan & Hennessey, for courtesies shown the members of the Society on
the occasion of the visit to the new supply well and reservoir, on October
15th.

The paper of the evening was then read by its author, Mr. Edmund K.
Turner, entitled "The Abolition of Grade Crossings in Massachusetts."

A very interesting discussion followed in which Messrs. John W. Ellis,

J. W. Rollins, Jr., H. Bissell, G. F. Swain, W. F. Williams, R. R. Evans,

C. F. Allen, Henry Manley and I. M. Story and others took part.

Adjourned.

S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.

Montana Society of Engineers.

Butte, Mont., October ii, 1902. — A regular meeting of the Montana So-
ciety of Engineers was held at the Society's room in the Tuttle Block;
President Harper in the chair.

The Secretary being absent the President appointed H. M. Patterson
Secretary pro tern.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

Moved by Mr. Carroll that a committee of two, with the President,
be appointed to select a place for the next annual meeting.

Motion carried.

The President appointed Messrs. Carroll and Moore.

Professor Williams, of Bozeman, then presented his paper on "The
Efficiency of Some Rocky Mountain Coals."

An interesting discussion followed by Messrs. Goodale, Winchel, Car-
roll, Sickles, Moore, Blossom, Harper and others.

Mr. Frank gave an interesting account of the coal fields in Frank, Al-
berta, Canada.

Society adjourned. H. M. Patterson, Secretary pro tern.

AsSOCIATIO

N

OF

Engineering Societies.

Vol. XXIX. NOVEMBER, 1902. No. 5.

PROCEEDINGS.

Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

Regular Meeting, San Francisco, November 7, 1902. — Called to order
at 8.30 p.m. by President Henny.

No meeting was held in October.

The minutes of the last regular meeting were read and approved.

The President announced with expressions of great regret the death
of the late Colonel G. H. Mendell, the first President of the Technical
Society, and appointed the following committee to draw suitable resolu-
tions in memory of the deceased: Marsden Manson, C. E. Grunsky and
Otto von Geldern.

The President thereupon stated to the members that this meeting had
been called for the special purpose of discussing the various features of
the "Irrigation Bill" as proposed by the Water and Forest Association
Committee, calling attention to the great importance of this measure,
particularly to the engineering profession of the State.

After the Secretary had read the introduction to the bill, and the
headings of the different sections of the proposed measure, the discussion
was opened by Mr. Marsden Manson, followed by C. E. Grunsky, Mr.
Adams, Luther Wagoner, A. T. Herrmann and others.

Mr. Herrmann called particular attention to the first section, which
declares the state ownership of water, including the water of all streams,
whether flowing above or underground in known or defined channels.
He referred to the difficulty of defining an underground flow, and its
conflict with artesian wells, which might in all equity be claimed by the
owner of the property upon which such wells are located, and that any
attempt of the State to claim such water as underground flow would be
met by considerable opposition, particularly in counties where irrigation
is principally accomplished by means of wells.

This feature and many others of the large scope of the bill were dis-
cussed at length. Mr. Wagoner thought that under its present condition,
covering many diversified points, the measure would not be likely to pass
the Legislature; while other members expressed the opinion that the

12 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

names of the prominent men on the committee, including two Chief
Justices of the Supreme Court of California, two Presidents of the princi-
pal universities of the State, two of the leading professors of Engineer-
ing and two irrigation experts of the Federal Government, carried with
it sufficient weight and guaranteed that a measure so universally desired
would be passed without opposition.

The discussion of the bill was finally limited to four special lines, and
divided into four classes, with special committees to study these individual
features, and report the results of such investigation and probable recom-
mendation back to the Society; a meeting for the purpose of hearing these
committee reports, and for further discussion of the bill to be held on
November 21, 1902. Mr. Gutzkow made this motion, which was carried.

The President subsequently selected the following committees:

1. On the Appropriation of Water and the Declaration of Owner-
ship:

C. E. Grunsky, A. T. Herrmann and C. D. Marx.

2. On the Fixing of Water Rates:

Marsden Manson, Stephen E. Kieffer and C. D. Marx.

3. On the Control by an Appointed Board of Engineers:
C. E. Grunsky, L. J. Le Conte and C. D. Marx.

. 4. On the Practical Method of Carrying Out the Law as Defined in the
Bill:

Marsden Manson and A. T. Herrmann.

The meeting thereupon adjourned to meet in two weeks, on Friday

evening, November the twenty-first. *

Otto von Geldern, Secretary.

Engineers' Club of St. Louis.

548TH Meeting, St. Louis, October i, 1902. — Held at the rooms of the
Club, 709 Pine street, at 8 p.m., with Vice-President Van Ornum in the
chair. Present, twenty-nine members and fourteen visitors. The minutes
of the 54/th meeting were read and approved. The minutes of the 335th
meeting of the Executive Committee were read. The application of Mr.
W. O. Renken was read and referred to the Executive Committee. Messrs.
A. H. S. Cantlin, F. T. Adler and D. E. MacCarthy were elected to member-
ship. Mr. Roper, the committee appointed to revise the rules concerning
the award of an annual prize, made a report, which was accepted.

The Chairman then introduced Mr. R. H. Phillips, who addressed the
Club on the subject, "Some Engineering Features of the Exposition
Grounds." Mr. Phillips exhibited maps and drawings showing the progress
of work to date. The disposal of the River Des Peres and the means for
the prevention of floods by the removal of obstructions below the Exposition
grounds were described. The layout of the system of sewers and water for
domestic and fire purposes, roads, lagoons, cascades, conduits for electric
wires and railroad tracks were shown by means of the maps and the engineer-
ing features were considered. In the discussion which followed a large
number of the members participated.

A light lunch was served after the meeting.

D. W. Roper, Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS. 13

550TH Meeting, St. Louis, November 5, 1902. — Held at the rooms of
the Club, 709 Pine street, at 8 p.m., with Vice-President Van Ornum in the
chair. Present, forty-two members and nine visitors. The minutes of the
549th meeting were read and approved. The minutes of the 336th meeting
of the Executive Committee were read ; included in the minutes was a report
in favor of the Club having a booth in the Liberal Arts Building at the
World's Fair, the booth to be furnished and decorated in appropriate
manner, and to be in charge of an attendant. On motion the report of the
committee was adopted, and the Executive Committee authorized to make
the necessary arrangements.

The Chairman then announced that nominations for members of the
Nominating Committee of five members, to be chosen by ballot, as provided
in Section 2 of the By-laws, were in order. Messrs. Russell, Brenneke,
Humphrey, Spencer, Fay, R. H. Phillips, Barwick, Pfeifer, Henby and Wise
were placed in nomination. The first five named were on ballot elected ; Mr.
Humphrey, having received the largest number of votes, was declared chair-
man.

Messrs. L. C. F. Metzger and W. O. Renken were on ballot elected to
membership.

The paper of the evening, "The St. Louis Water Problem," was then
presented by Mr. R. E. McMath. This paper will appear in full in the
Journal. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Flad, Robert Moore, Colby,
Ockerson, S. B. Russell, Kessler, Wheeler and A. L. Johnson.

Upon conclusion of the discussion the meeting adjourned to an adjoin-
ing room, where a light lunch was served.

D. W. Roper, Secretary.

55 1 st Meeting. St. Louis, November 19, 1902. — Held at the rooms of the
Club, 709 Pine street, at 8 p.m., with President Kinealy in the chair. Pres-
ent, thirty-seven members and thirteen visitors.

The minutes of the 550th meeting of the Club were read and approved.
The minutes of the 336th meeting of the Executive Committee were read.

The Nominating Committee reported the following list of nominations
for officers for the ensuing year :

President — J. L. Van Ornum.

Vice-President — J. A. Ockerson.

Secretary — H. J. Pfeifer.

Treasurer — E. E. Wall.

Librarian — E. B. Fay.

Directors — D. W. Roper and S. E. Freeman.

Members of the Board of Managers of the Association of Engineering
Societies — E. R. Fish and F. E. Bausch.

On motion of the Librarian, a vote of thanks was tendered to Mr.
Julius Baier for his donation of books, pictures, etc., to the Club, and the
Secretary was instructed to notify Mr. Baier of the action of the Club.

The Chairman then introduced Mr. J. C. Robinson, who presented a
paper entitled "A Brief Review of the Manufacture of Hydraulic Cement,
Its Chemistry, History and Recent Development." A number of figures
were given of the growth of the cement business showing that the use of
Portland cement was increasing at a more rapid rate than all others. Sev-
eral classes of cement were described and their uses were classified. For

14 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

hydraulic cement the chemical composition in some detail was given, as well
as the effect of the various constituents upon the properties of the cement.
The early methods of manufacture, as practiced several centuries ago, were
described. The various improvements that have been made in the manufac-
ture and their effect on the cost and time of manufacture were also given.
The most modern methods of cement manufacture, including the rotary kiln,
were described in some detail. A description was given of the method of
testing employed by the manufacturers and a statement of the accuracy re-
quired in mixing the materials.

In the discussion which followed the paper, Messrs. Colby, Wheeler,
S. B. Russell, Affleck and A. L. Johnson participated. The discussion served
to elucidate some further points regarding the effect of the various chemicals
and storage upon the properties of cement.

Mr. S. B. Russell then presented a resolution regarding the keeping by
the Club of a classified index of engineering periodicals. On motion of Mr.
Van Ornum the resolution was altered as follows : Resolved, That a com-
mittee of three, including the Secretary, be appointed by the Chairman to
consider methods and cost of keeping a classified index, and to report to the
Club. The Chair appointed Messrs. S. B. Russell, Van Ornum and Roper
on this committee.

The meeting then adjourned to an adjoining room, where a light lunch
was served.

D. W. Roper, Secretary.

As

SOCIATION

OF

Engineering Societies.

Vol. XXIX. DECEMBER, 1902. No. 6.

PROCEEDINGS.

Boston Society of Civil Engineers.

Boston. Mass., November 19, 1902. — A regular meeting of the Boston
Society of Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple, at 8
p.m., President George A. Kimball in the chair; ninety-four members and
visitors present.

Record of the last meeting was read and approved.

The committee appointed at the last meeting to nominate a Librarian
to fill a vacancy, reported the name of Mr. Frank P. McKibben. On motion
of Mr. Sidney Smith, the Secretary was directed, by a unanimous vote, to
cast a ballot for F. P. McKibben for Librarian. The Secretary having per-
formed the duty assigned him, the President announced the election of Mr.
McKibben as Librarian.

Mr. X. Henry Goodnough then read the first paper of the evening en-
titled, "A Description of Sewage Disposal Systems in Massachusetts," which
was fully illustrated by lantern slides.

Mr. F. Herbert Snow read the second paper entitled, "Adaptability of
Massachusetts Methods to Sewage Disposal Problems in other States."

Mr. Harrison P. Eddy, superintendent of sewers, of Worcester, spoke
of the sewerage problem in that city. A general discussion followed in
which the following members took part : Messrs. George A. Carpenter,
Freemen C. Coffin, L. P. Kinnicutt, Otis F. Clapp, F. P. Stearns and J. L.
Woodfall.

Adjourned. S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.

Boston, Mass., December 17, 1902. — A regular meeting of the Boston
Society of Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple, at
7.45 p.m. President George A. Kimball in the chair; one hundred and fifty-
eight members and visitors present, including ladies.

Record of the last meeting was read and approved.

Mr. Charles D. Elliot was elected a member and Mr. Arthur C. Town-
send an associate of the Society.

The paper of the evening was read by Mr. Elmer L. Corthell entitled,
"Argentina: Past, Present and Future." The paper was profusely illus-
trated with lantern slides, many of them beautifully colored.

Adjourned. S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.

16 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.

Engineers' Clnb of St. Louis.

S52D Meeting, St. Louis, December 3, 1902. — Held at the rooms of the
Club, 709 Pine street, at 8 p.m., with Vice-President Van Ornum in the
chair. Present, twenty-seven members and two visitors.

The minutes of the 551st meeting of the Club were read and approved.
The minutes of the 338th meeting of the Excutive Committe were read.

The Chairman then announced that the Executive Committee had ap-
proved the report of the Committee on Prizes, and that he was pleased to
announce the award of the annual prize to Mr. H. H. Humphrey for his
paper entitled "Notes on the Use of Beaumont Oil as Fuel," read before the
Club April 2, 1902.

The applications of Messrs. T. M. Meston, R. L. Murphy, E. G. Helm and
R. H. Fernald were read by the Secretary and referred to the Executive
Committee.

Mr. Russell, Chairman of the Committee on Engineering Index, made a
report, which was received and filed. Further action on the recommenda-
tions was deferred until a later meeting.

In accordance with Section 11 of the By-Laws, the names of the candi-
dates for offices for the ensuing year, which had been submitted by the
Nominating Committee at the preceding meeting, were read by the Secre-
tary, and were placed in nomination. On account of leaving the city, Mr.
D. W. Roper asked unanimous consent to withdraw his name from the ballot
as a candidate for director; there being no objection, the Chairman an-
nounced that the privilege would be granted. The Chairman then called for
further nominations.

The name of Mr. W. G. Brennecke was proposed as a candidate for di-
rector in a communication signed by Messrs. Humphrey, Fay, S. B. Russell,
Flad and Spencer. There were no further nominations. *

The Chairman then announced that the next order of business would
be the reading of the annual reports of officers and standing committees.
As the President of the Club was absent from the city, the annual report
of the Executive Committee was not presented. The reports of the Secretary,
Treasurer, Librarian, Board of Managers and Governing Board were read
and on motion were accepted and filed. The Treasurer's report was referred
to the Executive Committee for auditing.

On motion it was voted to hold the annual banquet at the meeting on
December 17, 1902, the price not to exceed $3.50 per plate. The Chairman
appointed Messrs. Zeller and Klauder a Committee on Time and Place, and
Messrs. Flad and Layman a Committee on Program.

The meeting then adjourned to an adjoining room, where a lunch was

provided by the Entertainment Committee. ^ „T „

D. W. Roper, Secretary.

Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.

Special Meeting, November 21, 1902. — Called to order at 8.30 p.m. for
the purpose of discussing the Water and Forest Association's proposed irri-
gation bill.

The minutes of the last regular meeting were read.

PROCEEDINGS. 17

The committee appointed to draw up suitable resolutions of respect in
memory of the late Colonel G. H. Mendell, first President of the Society, pre-
sented its report. These resolutions were read by the Secretary, while the
Society rose to its feet and remained standing. It was ordered that these
resolutions be spread in full upon the minutes, that they be published in the
Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies, and that a copy be
sent to the family of the late Colonel Mendell.

The discussion of the proposed irrigation bill was then taken up, and the
reports of the committees were read and accepted. Each topic as brought
up by its special committee was then discussed in detail, Professor Marx, as
one of the framers of the bill, answering such questions as were requested
for the information of the members discussing the bill.

A full stenographic report of the discussion was taken down for refer-
ence and for the purpose of writing therefrom the suggestions as to changes
and modifications of the bill, which will be laid before the Water and Forest
Association for its consideration.

The committee of this association will be called together before Christ-
mas for the purpose of considering any suggestions that may be brought to
its notice.

No further business appearing, the meeting adjourned.

Otto von Geldern, Secretary.

San Francisco, Cal., December 5, 1902. — Regular meeting called to
order at 8.30 p.m. by Past President Grunsky.

The minutes of the last regular meeting were read and approved.

Applications for membership from Leon S. Quimby, proposed by C. E.
Grunsky, Harry Larkin and Otto von Geldern, and from Morris Kind, pro-
posed by Adolf Lietz, E. J. Schild and Otto von Geldern, were read and re-
ferred to the Board of Directors.

The following committee was selected to nominate officers for the
ensuing year: C. E. Grunsky, Marsden Manson, Hermann Meyer, F. C.
Herrmann and Edward F. Haas.

Mr. Grunsky reported the present session of the Water and Forest
Association and the business done on this day as far as he had learned.
The reports of the committees were again referred to and the matter of co-
operation with the Association outlined.

Mr. Manson stated that he would arrange for a visit of the Society
to the cable-laying vessel now in the harbor; while Mr. Haas related some
of the methods employed in trans-oceanic cable laying by this Company.
The Secretary will be informed of the time and place of the visit and will
notify the members thereof.

The Secretary referred to a paper written by Mr. Hans C. Behr,
member of this Society, whose able theoretical discussion of "Winding
Plants for Great Depths" in deep-level mining operations, had been read
before the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, at the rooms of the
Geological Society, London, on May 15, 1902, and had there been con-
sidered as meritorious and had been awarded the prize. The congratula-
tions of the Society were tendered to Mr. Behr.

Meeting thereupon adjourned.

Otto von Geldern, Secretary.

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